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Rabbi Zeira โ€“ Forgetting the Teachings of Babylon

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Rabbi Zeira โ€“ Forgetting the Teachings of Babylon

By Chaim Katz

We read in the Talmud (Baba Metziah 85a):
R. Zeira, when he moved to the land of Israel, observed a hundred fasts to forget the teachings of Babylonia, [1] so that they should not disturb him.
He fasted another hundred times so that R. Elazar should not die during his years and the responsibilities of the community not fall upon him.He fasted another hundred times so that the fire of Gehenna should have no power over him.


Figure 1 From the first print of Baba Metziah Soncino, Italy 1489

There are some difficulties with R. Zeira forgetting the teachings of Babylonia:

1) Both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmud contain many interactions between sages who travelled from the land of Israel to Babylon or from Babylon to the land of Israel. These sages shared their own teachings and traditions with their counterparts. By forgetting Babylonian teachings, R. Zeira is choosing not to participate in this knowledge transfer. Why? [2]

2) R. Zeira is mentioned many times in the Jerusalem Talmud and sometimes he transmits in the name of his Babylonian teachers. Many of these exchanges clearly took place when he already was in the land of Israel. How can he transfer Torah information that he has supposedly forgotten? [3]

3) The Talmud (Shabbat 41a) relates that when R Zeira was about to leave for the land of Israel, he went out of his way to hear one more teaching from his teacher, Rav Yehuda. ย Why would he go to the trouble of amassing more Babylonian teachings if he intended to immediately forget them?

4) Forgetting oneโ€™s learning purposefully isnโ€™t a pious thing to do. The Mishna Pirkei Avot 3:10 strongly discourages it, as does the Talmud: ย R. Elazar said:ย  One who forgets a word of his learning (Talmud)causes his descendants to be exiled โ€“ Yoma 38b. Resh Laqish said: ย One who forgets a word of his learning (Talmud) transgresses a negative commandment โ€“ Menachotย  99b.

We can find a simple solution to these questions in oneof the manuscripts of Baba Metzia, written around 1137 and housed in the National Central Library in Florence. The manuscript disagrees with the premise that R. Zeira ever forgot his learning:

R. Zeira fasted so that he would notforget the teachings of Babylon.
He observed another forty fasts so that R Il'a should not die in his lifetime.
He observed another forty fasts that the fire of Gehenna should have no power over him.

Figure 2 Florence Manuscript BM 85a

As far as I know, this manuscript is unique among the manuscripts that exist today in defining โ€œnot to forgetโ€ as the purpose R. Zeiraโ€™s fast. [4] The manuscript is also attractive for a couple of other reasons:

The passage is shorter here than in the standard version. The explanations โ€œwhen he moved to the land of Israelโ€, โ€œso that it should not disturb himโ€, [5] โ€œso that the responsibilities of the community not fall upon himโ€ are all missing. This reduction most likely indicates that the manuscript reflects an early version of the story โ€“ a version in which marginal commentary had not yet been copied (inadvertently) into the text.

The paragraph that precedes the story of R. Zeira (in all versions) tells of Rav Yosef (R. Zeira's colleague) who also observed a series of three sets of forty intermittent fasts. The purpose of Rav Yosefโ€™s fasts was to guarantee that the knowledge of the Torah would not depart from himself, from his children and from his grandchildren. The goal of Rav Yosef's fasts seems to agree with the goal of R. Zeiraโ€™s fasts; to remember (i.e., not forget) the teachings of Babylonia.

According to this manuscript, all of R. Zeiraโ€™s fasts have something in common with each other. He fasted so he would not forget, he fasted so that R. Ila'i would not die, and he fasted so that the fire of Gehina would not harm him. He always seems to be fasting so that something should not happen.

However, many authorities have discussed the standard version, and no one (as far as I know) has relied on this reading to resolve the original questions. [6]

Here are some of the classical interpretations that attempt to solve the problems of R. Zeiraโ€™s forgetting.

Rashi writes (BM 85a) that the students in the land of Israel were not ื‘ื ื™ ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช, were not contentious, ื•ื ื•ื—ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืœื–ื”, they were pleasant to each other] ย .ย .ย .ย  ย ื•ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ื˜ืขืžื™ื ื‘ืœื ืงื•ืฉื™ื•ืช ื•ืคื™ืจื•ืงื™ืŸ and they explained their reasoning without challenging each other with difficulties and rebuttals.
According to Rashi , R. Zeira forgets the โ€œatmosphereโ€ of the Babylonian academies. ย [7]

Maharsha (1555-1631), disagrees with Rashi. He argues that the sages in the land of Israel do engage in questioning and answering like their counterparts in Babylonia.ย  He cites the Gemara (Baba Metzia 84a) where R. Yohanan says about Reish Laqish:ย  he would raise twenty-four objections, and I would reply with twenty-four answers.

Therefore, Maharsha explains that possibly the Babylonian piplul was faulty and similar to a style of piplulthat existed in his own time ื“ื•ื’ืžืช ื—ื™ืœื•ืงื™ื ืฉื‘ื“ื•ืจ ื”ื–ื”. He objects to this style of questioning and answering because it distances one from the truth, and canโ€™t help one rule on halakhic issues. Accordingly, R. Zeira fasted in order to forget how to piplul the Babylonian way.

Abravanel (1437-1508) in his commentary on Pirkei Avot (on the Mishna in chapter 5 which begins: There are four types who study with the sages) writes somewhat similarly. The problem with the one who is compared to a sponge, who soaks up everything โ€“ is that he retains things that are untrue. In the search for truth, there are necessary steps which themselves are untrue:ย  ื›ื™ ืœื ืชื‘ืจืจ ื”ืืžืช ื›ื™ ืื ื‘ื”ืคื›ื• truth can only be evaluated when compared with its opposite. R. Zeira fasts to forget the stages in the arguments of the Babylonian Talmud that were untrue.

In summary, all three of these interpretations agree that R. Zeira didnโ€™t literally forget the Babylonian teachings. He forgot the โ€œatmosphereโ€ of the Babylonian academies or the interim discussions that took place there. ย [8]

Iโ€™d like now to give some examples of how the story of R. Zeira is presented in some early Hassidic sermons, to show how the Rebbes and their audiences understood the story of R. Zeira. These sources arenโ€™t concerned with explaining our Gemara; R. Zeiraโ€™s story is cited to support an ethical or moral lesson.

Torah Or is a collection of sermons by R. Shneur Zalman of Liadi (1745-1812). On page 69c, in a discussion about spiritual worlds, the author says:
The purpose of the river diNur, (fiery river (or maybe fiery light)), in which the soul submerges itself as it passes from this world to Gan Eden, is to erase its memories of this physical world. If the soul remembers its encounter with materiality, it canโ€™t experience Gan Eden. And when the soul goes from the lower Gan Eden to the higher Gan Eden it also must pass through a river diNur to forget the comprehension and pleasures of the lower Gan Eden. (Zohar part 2 210a) This is the idea in the Gemara: R. Zeira observed 100 fasts to forget the Talmud of Babylonia even though he had studied it with devotion.
In Likutei Moharan (ch. 246), R. Nachman of Bratslav (1772 โ€“ 1810) writes:

A person sometimes has to feel self-importantื’ื“ืœื•ืช, as it says (2 Chronicles 17:6) His heart was elevatedื•ื™ื’ื‘ื” ืœื‘ื• ย in the service of G-d. ย This helps the same way as fasting helps. For when one needs to attain an understanding or needs to reach a higher level, he has to forget the wisdom he had previously acquired. R. Zeira fasted to forget the Talmud of Babylon in order to reach a greater level of comprehension โ€“ the level of the Talmud of the land of Israel. ย Similarly through self-importance, one forgets his wisdomย .ย .ย .ย 
In these examples of Hassidic thought there is no difficulty with the idea that R. Zeira forgets his learning in order to reach higher spiritual plateau. Forgetting is a purification process that is both necessary and exemplary. [9]

Returning now to the literal sense of the Gemara:

R. Issac Halevi (Rabinowitz) (1847-1914), the author of Dorot Harishonim addresses our problem in a footnote (Dorot II p 427 footnote 93). He posits that in R.ย  Zeiraโ€™s time there were already two canonized collections of Talmudic material arranged around the Mishna; each in its own distinct form and style.

ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ืณ ืœื”ื ืกืชืžื ื“ื”ืฉ"ืก ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉื ื” ืฉื’ืจืกื• ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžื˜ื‘ืข ืงื‘ื•ืขื”, ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื™ืณย  ืœื”ื ืื– ื›ื‘ืจ ื’ื ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ.

R. Zeira chose to forget the Babylonian Talmud (as it existed in his time), because it interfered with his studies in the land of Israel.

According to this interpretation, R. Zeira forgot only the redaction or arrangement of the teachings he had learned. ย He didnโ€™t forget the teachings themselves (or the study method). [10]

Iโ€™d like to suggest an original explanation. Itโ€™s based on passages in the Talmud about R. Zeira and additionally can explain why only R. Zeira decided to forget the teachings of Babylon when he moved to the land of Israel.

1)ย ย ย ย ย  R. Yitzhak b. Nahmani said in the name of R. Eleazar: The halakha agrees with R. Jose b. Kipper.ย  R. Zeira said: โ€œIf I merit, I'll go there and learn the halakha from the Master himselfโ€. When R. Zeira came to the land of Israel he found R. Eleazar and asked him: โ€œDid you say: The halakha is in agreement with R. Jose b. Kipper?โ€ โ€“ Nidda 48a

2)ย ย ย ย ย  R. Zeira said to R. Abba b Papa: When you go there, detour around the Ladder of Tyre and visit R. Yaakov b Idi. Ask him if he heard from R. Yohanan if the Halakha is like R. Aqiba or not โ€“ Baba Metziah 43b

3)ย ย ย ย ย  R Zeira, commented: How can you compare R Binyamin b Yefetโ€™s version of R. Yohananโ€™s statement with the version of Rabbi Hiya b Abba. R Hiya b Abba was precise when he studied the halakhic traditions from R Yohanan but R. Binyamin b Yefet was not precise. Moreover, R Hiya b Abba reviewed his learning (Talmud) with R. Yohanan every thirty days.ย  โ€“ Berachot 38b

4)ย ย ย ย ย  R. Nathan b. Tobi quoted R. Johananย .ย .ย .ย Rabbi Zeira asked: โ€œDid R. Johanan say this?โ€ Yes, he answered. Rabbi Zeira recited this teaching forty times. R. Nathan said to R. Zeira: Is this the only teaching that you have heard or is it a teaching that is new to you? R. Zeira replied: โ€œIt's new to me. I wasn't sure if it was taught in the name R. Yohanan or R Yehoshua b Levi.โ€ โ€“ Berachot 28a

We see that the teachings of the land of Israel (especially R. Yohananโ€™s) did reach R. Zeira while he was still in Babylon [11]. R. Zeira, however, didnโ€™t really trust these teachings. Sometimes he thought they were attributed incorrectly, or their content was not accurate. He doubted if a statement in the name of R. Eleazar was correct. [12] He was unsure if R. Yohanan agreed with R. Aqibaโ€™s position or not. He distinguished between the different amoraim who transmitted teachings. In general he looked at Torah that reached Babylon as something that was possibly unreliable, inaccurate or โ€œdamaged in transitโ€.
ย ย 
R. Zeira was only able to resolve his doubts when he moved to the land of Israel and learned the Torah of the land of Israel there. He then forgot the imprecise version of these teachings that he had previously memorized in Babylon โ€“ โ€œthe teachings of Babylonโ€. He could forget them because they were superseded by accurate teachings that he now received in the land of Israel. [13]

Iโ€™d like to thank Reb Gary Gleam who provided the cabbage rolls and coffee, and the late night sounding board.

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[1] ืชืœืžื•ื“ื ื‘ื‘ืœืื”is sometimes translated as Babylonian Talmud, which I think is an anachronism. I will use the translation โ€œBabylonian teachingsโ€. All the available manuscripts have ืชืœืžื•ื“ื ื“ื‘ื‘ืœย =ย  the teachings of Babylonia. The phrase Talmuda dBabel or TalmudaBabelah occurs only here (Google). Talmud in the sense of teachings occurs many times, often in comparison to mikra or mishna.
ย [2] Compare Rosh Hashana 20b: โ€œWhen R. Zeira went up [to the land of Israel], he sent [a letter] to his colleagues [in Babylonia] ย .ย .ย .โ€ย  R. Zeira didnโ€™t break off all contact with the old country. He taught them what he heard and learned in the land of Israel.
[3] See Goldberg, Abraham. โ€œRabbi Ze'ira and Babylonian Custom in Palestineโ€ (Hebrew) Tarbiz vol. 36 1967 (pages 319-341), for examples of Babylonian traditions that R. Zeira brought to the land of Israel. The following quote is from the online abstract:
โ€œR. Zeira is the outstanding figure among many who came from an area of unmixed Babylonian tradition and who tried to impose their own Babylonian practice upon Palestinian custom.โ€
[4] The crucial word ื“ืœื, is crossed-out in the manuscript, but Iโ€™m assuming that the strikethrough is not the work of the original sofer. (Didnโ€™t scribes write dots on top of the words they wanted to erase?) The facsimile shows a number of other emendations that were written after the manuscriptโ€™s creation.
[5] The words โ€œso that it should not disturb himโ€ would be out of place in this version of the story, since according to this version, R. Zeria never forgot the Babylonian teachings, but the idea is that the text is short. There is a geniza fragment from The Friedberg Project forย Talmud Bavliย Variants and it is equally as short. (Note that it matches the standard editions with regard to the goal of R. Zeiraโ€™s fast.)

ย Figure 3 Geniza fragment of our Baba Metziah 85a

Translation of the geniza fragment:
R. Zeira observed forty fasts to forget the teachings of Babylon.
He fasted another forty times that R Il'a should not die in his lifetime.
He fasted another forty times that the fire of Gehenna should have no power over him.
[6] The author of Dikduke Soferim mentions this version but doesnโ€™t suggest that its reading is better than the standard one. Dikduke Sofreim has written elsewhere that this specific manuscript belonged to Christians who translated (into Latin) passages that were regularly used against Jews in inter-faith disputations. Thereโ€™s no Latin on this page, but you can see Latin on some other pages.
[7] Rashi mentions his source as Sanhedrin 24a. He understands that the students of Babylon were antagonistic to each other unlike the students in the land of Israel who were pleasant to each other. Rashi apparently was thinking of this in his commentary on the prayer of R. Nehunya ben HaKanah โ€“ Berachot 28b. The prayer reads: โ€œMay it be Your will that I donโ€™t make a mistake in a halakhic ruling, and that my colleagues rejoice with me ย .ย .ย .โ€ย  Rashi understands the prayer this way โ€“ May it be Your will that I donโ€™t make a mistake in a halakhic ruling and my colleagues make fun of me.
[8] The explanations of Maharsha and Abravanel have prompted subversive interpretations by the school of the German Jewish historians of the Talmud.ย  In the Soncino translation of Shabbat 41a, the translator, Rabbi DR. Freedman (1901-1982) writes:ย  โ€œWeiss, Dor, III, p. 188, maintains that R. Zera's desire to emigrate was occasioned by dissatisfaction with Rab Judah's method of study; this is vigorously combatted by Halevi, Doroth, II pp. 421 et seq.โ€

Jacob Neusnerโ€™s in his book A History of the Jews in Babylonia page 218, also questions the idea that sages of the land of Israel rejected the Babylonian methods of study, and finds โ€œHaleviโ€™s strong demurrer quite convincingโ€.
[9] In this context, the Talmudic statement: ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืœืฉืžื” ืžืžืฆื•ื•ื” ืฉืœื ืœืฉืžื”ย ย - ืžืกื›ืช ื”ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื™'ืข"ื‘may be somewhat relevant.
[10] Iโ€™m not sure, according to R. Halevi,ย  did R. Zeira also forget the anonymous Talmudic layer (stam or redactor) that existed in his time?ย 
[11] The first of these conversations definitely took place in Babylon. The fourth interaction occurred in the land of Israel but revises a teaching that R. Zeira probably heard in Babylonia. The middle two quotes are may describe R. Zeira in Babylon, but even if they occurred when R. Zeira was already in the land of Israel, they reflect doubts that he had while in Babylon. ย The number 40 in the last example is also remarkable. He repeats something 40 times in order to remember. He fasts 40 times to forget.ย 
[12] R. Eleazar teaches without citing his source but everyone knows that his teachings are R. Yohananโ€™s (Yerushalmi Berakot 2:1 and Yerushalmi Shekalim 2:5).
[13] R. Zeira didnโ€™t forget the native Babylonian teachings, authored and recorded by the Babylonian amoraim. He never doubted their accuracy. He brought those teachings to the land of Israel and enriched the Torah of the land of Israel with them.ย 
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The History and Dating of Onkelos

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The History and Dating of Onkelos

By Israel Drazin

The Babylonian Talmud has the earliest report of the authorship and date of Targum Onkelos. It states that an individual named Onkelos composed the translation in the first third of the second century CE. Since the nineteenth century, scholars have generally rejected this recollection and dated the Targum, or its final redaction, in the third century CE. I will show that the proper date is more likely the late fourth or early fifth century CE. This dating is supported by seeing the consistent use of the targumist of the final version of tannaitic Midrashim that were not edited until the late fourth century.

The Traditional View and its Problemsย ย ย ย 
ย 
The Babylonian talmudic scholars gave preference to the literal Aramaic translation of the Pentateuch, which they called targum didan (โ€œour translationโ€), over other translations.[1]However, they had but a single unreliable memory of its author.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  A Palestinian Amora (in Megillah3a) curiously states that Onkelos composed the authorized translation after it had been forgotten.

R. Jeremiah โ€“ or some say R. Hiyya b. Abba โ€“ also said: Onkelos the proselyte under the guidance of R. Eleazar and R. Joshua composed The Targum of the Pentateuchโ€ฆ. But did Onkelos the proselyte compose the targum to the Pentateuch? Has not R. Ika said in the name of R. Hananel who had it from Rab: What is meant by the text, โ€œAnd they read in the book, in the law of God, with an interpretation, and they gave the sense, and caused them to understand the readingโ€ (Nehemiah 8:8)? โ€œAnd they read in the book, in the law of Godโ€ this indicates the [Hebrew] text; โ€œwith an interpretationโ€: this indicates the Targum; โ€œand they gave the senseโ€ this indicates the verse stops; โ€œand caused them to understand the readingโ€ this indicates the accentuation; or, according to another version, the Masoretic notes? โ€“ These had been forgotten, and were not established again.[2]ย 
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย 
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The Babylonian Talmud states that Onkelos was the son of Kolonikos, who was the nephew of the Roman Emperor Titus. He converted to Judaism. Several miraculous stories are revealed about him.[3]These tales are virtually identical with those conveyed of the Greek translator Aquilas, and, as we shall see, were confusedly ascribed to Onkelos.[4]Thus, according to R. Jeremiah and the Babylonian Talmud, Targum Onkelos was composed about 130 CE.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  There are several serious problems with R. Jeremiahโ€™s opinion. The Babylonian Talmud translates pentateuchal words eighteen times using the term uโ€™mโ€™targuminun, โ€œand it is translated,โ€ or โ€œthe Targum states.โ€[5]Despite R. Jeremiahโ€™s view of authorship, in none of these instances is Onkelos mentioned by name. Midrashim use the same formula seventeen times and Onkelos is cited only once, in a late twelfth-century midrash (Numbers Rabbah 9).[6]An opinion is attributed to an individual called Onkelos only once in the Talmud. This opinion is in no way related to the Targum.[7]

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  There is good authority confirming that Aquilas translated the Bible into Greek about 130 CE. There is, however, no corroboration for connecting the Aramaic translation currently called Targum Onkelos with a person named Onkelos other than the single statement in the tractate Megillah. The talmudic sages, R. Jeremiah or R. Hiyya, obviously confused the two translations.[8]It is hardly possible that R. Eleazar and R. Joshua had two students with virtually identical names, both of whom were born of the same noble lineage under highly unusual circumstances, and both of whom underwent remarkably similar miraculous events.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  It is more likely that the redactors of the Babylonian Talmud did not know who composed their โ€œauthorizedโ€ or โ€œofficially acceptedโ€ translation. They recalled that the Jerusalem Talmud of several generations earlier had stated that Aquilas composed the authorized Greek translation. They ascribed their Aramaic version to him as well.[9]

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The only essential difference between the names of Onkelos and Aquilas in Hebrew script is the addition of the letter nun, a characteristic insertion in Babylonian Aramaic. Onkelos is thus a Babylonian equivalent of the name Aquilas.[10]

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  There are indicators that suggest, although admittedly they do not prove, that Targum Onkelos could not have been composed in the second century. If Onkelos existed, aside from the unbelievable circumstance that both he and Aquilas underwent the same curious life experiences, there must have been some differences. Why is no difference mentioned in the two stories? Moreover, why is there no allusion to Onkelos in the Talmud, where the Targum is extolled? If the Babylonian talmudic rabbis knew the author of the Targum, we would expect that Onkelosโ€™ name should have been cited whenever the Targum is mentioned.[11]If Onkelos was a noted Palestinian scholar of the second century, he should have been included in the Jerusalem Talmud whose final redaction occurred at the end of the fourth century. Further, if the author of the Targum was known, there should have been no need for the tradition of R. Jeremiah, and the Talmud should never have questioned this tradition.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Even more significantly, if Onkelos composed the Targum in the second century, why is his name not mentioned in the tannaitic midrashim that were edited in the late fourth century? Jewish tradition is meticulous about naming the source of every teaching.[12]Furthermore, the Mishnah in the Babylonian Talmud, Megillah 8b, edited after the traditionally held composition date of the Onkelos Targum, quotes R. Simeon b. Gamaliel, who lived during and after the traditional composition date of Targum Onkelos. He identified only the Greek translation as being holy. The Mishnah knows nothing of Targum Onkelos. The Babylonian Talmud, Megillah 9b, comments upon this Mishnah and states in the name of R. Abbahu (circa 300 CE), who made his statement in the name of R. Johanan (circa 250 CE, both living several generations after the supposed composition of Targum Onkelos), that the halakhah follows R. Simeon b. Gamaliel.

Modern Scholarship

The problems that refute the talmudic view of the dating of Targum Onkelos also confront and refute the views of modern scholarship. Some writers, such as M. H. Goshen-Gottstein and B. Grossfeld, accept the talmudic dating.[13]Grossfeld, for example, maintains that Onkelos and Aquila are the same person, argues that the parallels between the Targum and the midrashim point to a common tradition upon which both genres of scriptural interpretations rest, and concludes that where the school of R. Akiba and R. Ishmael differ, Onkelos upholds the views of R. Akibaโ€™s school. Grossfeld knew only 153 cases in the Pentateuch where Targum Onkelos and the tannaitic midrashim parallel each other. He attributes Onkelosโ€™ translation to the Akiban school because he notes that in 19 of these 153 instances the Targumโ€™s deviation were like those of R. Akiba. Grossfeld did not know that Targum Onkelos parallels the tannaitic Midrashim in 698 instances, as we will show, in just four of the pentateuchal books, and he did not analyze the parallels or take note of the frequent times that the targumist differed with the Akiban school (e.g. Exodus 21:3, 19; 22:3).

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Most scholars reject the Talmudโ€™s date and assign the date of composition to the first half of the third century CE. They rely on references to the Targum in a volume on targumic traditions collected in Die Masorah zum Targum Onkelos,[14]which is said to have been composed in the first half of the third century CE.[15]There is no evidence of the time of composition of this Masorah and no certainty that many elements were not added at later dates. A second proof for the third century dating is the existence of non-halakhic material in the Targum. The argument is that later rabbis could not have authorized divergences from halakhah. These scholars fail to note that rabbinic tradition has always tolerated dissident opinions as to the peshat, the literal sense of the text. Contra-halakhic biblical interpretations occur in the early midrashim and the Talmuds, as well as in the later commentaries of Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Nachmanides, and others. There is no rabbinic statement indicating that Targum Onkelos has halakhic authority. The rabbis only forbade teachings which encourage โ€œbehaviorโ€ that is contrary to halakhah.

Dating Onkelos by means of the Tannaitic Midrashimย ย ย ย 

While studying, translating and commenting upon Targum Onkelos to the Pentateuch,[16]I noted the remarkable reliance of this Aramaic translation upon the present version of all of the tannaitic midrashim.[17]This has led us to date the Targum to a time following the final redaction of these midrashim.[18]

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  I will illustrate this conclusion by focusing on the book of Numbers. A comparison of the words used in Targum Onkelos and Sifrei to Numbers shows the reliance of the author(s) of the Targum upon this late fourth-century midrash[19]and shows the many similarities between the two documents.[20]The findings are rather startling when one realizes that the two documents were not only written in different languages, but that their authors and editors, as will be seen, had totally different agendas. While space constraints restrict us from detailing the findings in the other pentateuchal books, we will also outline these findings briefly and show the consistency of the targumic borrowings.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The method used in the following study of Numbers is relatively simple. Whenever the Onkelos translation replaces the biblical Hebrew word with a word that deviates from being an exact translation of the original, the tannaitic midrash is examined.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  We will see, for example, that there are five instances where our targumist relied on Sifrei to Numbersโ€™ definitions. Sifrei defined words with what we may call a full definition formula: ein bakhal makom elah (โ€˜there is no place that X means anything else but โ€˜Yโ€™). Onkelos quotes Sifreiโ€™s word definition each time this formula is used, except where the midrash differentiates dabeir,โ€˜speakโ€™, from amar, โ€˜saidโ€™.[21]

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Similarly, Sifrei uses what we could call a short definition formula, ein(โ€˜There is noโ€ฆ butโ€™), thirteen times.[22]Again, Onkelos incorporates Sifreiโ€™sexact word or uses a synonym of the midrashic term in each instance. Thus, repeatedly and consistently, Onkelos defines the biblical terms exactly like the midrash whenever the midrash states that it is giving a definition. In each instance, the targumist used Sifreias a dictionary.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Additionally, our targumist repeats โ€“ one might even say โ€œquotesโ€ โ€“ Sifreiโ€™sexact word in 53 other verses and is similar to the midrash an additional 35 times in the book of Numbers. Thus, when Onkelos parallels the midrash, it is more likely to repeat the midrashโ€™s exact word than to use a synonym. These numbers are extraordinary since the Targum is an Aramaic translation and the midrash is a Hebrew documentary, and there is extant midrash on only a third of the biblical text.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  In total, Targum Onkelos parallels Sifrei to Numbers in 106 instances, in over a third of the verses where Sifrei has commentary. This is not happenstance. The Targum uses the word because the targumist drew it from the midrash.[23]

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The Onkelos targumist not only drew his translation, indeed his very words, from Sifrei to Numbers but did so as well with the tannaitic midrash Sifrei Zutta to Numbers.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Sifrei Zutta does not use the full definition formula contained in Sifrei, but it has the short formula einin five verses (7:3, 10:31, 11:3, 11:18 and 15:38). In each of these instances, our targumist deviates from the biblical text and uses an Aramaic synonym for Sifrei Zuttaโ€™s word.
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  In addition, Onkelos quotes Sifrei Zuttaโ€™s exact word 61 times and is similar to the midrash 38 times. In total, the Targum parallels this midrash in 104 places.[24]

Lack of Similarities

Turning now to the opposite perspective, the following answers the question: why did the targumist not copy everything in the midrash and why did he include material not in the midrash? This will help us understand that the targumist consistently drew his material from the midrash and only failed to do so because of good reasons.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  As mentioned earlier, the targumist and the midrash compilers had different agendas. The targumist quotes the midrash when their purposes are the same, when the midrash translates the textโ€™s simple meaning. He deviates from the midrash when the midrash goes beyond this task. He adds material that is not in the midrash when the midrash did not attempt to clarify the textโ€™s meaning and his rendering does so.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The following list catalogues some of the kinds of deviations inserted by the targumist to clarify the text that are not in Sifrei. These changes, which are explained in chapter 3 and in the authorโ€™s Targum Onkelos toNumbers, either did not concern the halakhic and aggadic-minded commentators of the midrash, or they are insertions that the compilers of the midrash did not feel compelled to add to every verse when they had already commented upon it elsewhere (e.g. Shekhinah or adding a preposition).[25]

Explaining the text with an Aramaic idiom
Replacing el, which means โ€œGod,โ€ with โ€œidolโ€
Changing the harsh โ€œtakeโ€ to the softer โ€œleadโ€
Grammatical and tense replacements
Explanation of metaphors
Using words to avoid anthropomorphisms, such as memra
Treating a name as verb
Updating and thereby identifying a place name
Being more explicit than the Bible
Avoiding an anthropomorphism and anthropopathism
Changes to preserve Israelite honor
Changes to protect Godโ€™s honor
Removing redundancies
Replacing the plural Elohim with the Tetragrammaton

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Thus, the targumic insertions that are of not in the midrash are absent from the midrash because they do not concern the midrashic authors. Conversely, the targumist only incorporates Sifrei material that interprets biblical verses according to their literal meaning. He avoids using derash, interpretations trying to disclose the textโ€™s hidden meaning, or where the midrash has halakhah, theology, legends, and parables.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Examples of midrashic derashthat Onkelos refrains from using are: the Massoretic Textโ€™s (MTโ€™s) โ€œuncover the womanโ€™s headโ€ (Numbers 5:18) teaches that Israelite women should keep their heads covered. MTโ€™s โ€œplace in her handsโ€ (5:18) is required to tire her out so that she will repent. MTโ€™s โ€œtwo turtledoves and two young pigeonsโ€ (6:10) implies that people may not substitute turtledoves for pigeons or pigeons for turtledoves.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Halakhic elements are on virtually every Sifrei page. They appear only rarely in the Aramaic translation, which also has contra-halakhic matter, and then only when they help readers understand the textโ€™s simple meaning. MTโ€™s โ€œcommandโ€ (5:2) is said to apply immediately and for future generations. MTโ€™s โ€œhis sinโ€ clarifies that one does not confess his fatherโ€™s sins. MTโ€™s โ€œeyesโ€ (5:11) excludes a blind person.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Aside from its avoidance of anthropomorphisms, theology and morality are also generally absent from Onkelos, but abound in the midrash. Sifrei derives the lesson that strength is granted to those who are strong, and encouragement to those who are stout of heart (5:2), Aaron was righteous because he did exactly what Moses told him to do (8:1), and the Israelites were virtuous because they did what Moses instructed (9:1). Merit flows to the meritorious and humiliation to those who are disgraceful (9:1).

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Various legends and parables do not appear in Onkelos. For example, each of the seven days of preparing the Tabernacle, Moses set it up and then dismantled it (7:1). Aaronโ€™s sons did not literally die before the Lord; they fell outside so as not to render the Tabernacle unclean. In fact, an angel sustained them after they had been struck with fire, helped them outside, and allowed them to fall in the courtyard (7:1). The Israelite desert leaders were the same individuals who were assigned as their supervisors while they were slaves in Egypt (7:3).

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  In summary, the Onkelos targumist consistently drew the explanations and definitions from the late fourth century midrashim that helped explain the textโ€™s simple meaning, and frequently even quoted the midrash. He ignored material that did not further this agenda. Thus he could not have composed his translation before the end of the fourth century.

Consistency With Other Biblical Books

The significant and unswerving reliance by Targum Onkelos on the tannaitic midrashim to Numbers to clarify the simple meaning of the biblical text also occurred in the other books of the Pentateuch. The Onkelos deviations from the literal Hebrew translation consistently reflect the late fourth century tannaitic midrashim in about a third of the verses where midrashic commentary are present.

Exodus

Although the tannaitic midrash Mekhilta dโ€™R. Ishmael exists for only about fourteen Exoduschapters, Targum Onkelos deviates from rendering the biblical text literally 158 times. It consistently and remarkably uses midrashic words, including 95 instances where the targumist quotes theMekhiltaโ€™s exact word, an average of eight times in each chapter. He parallels Mekhilta in more than thirty per cent of the verses where midrashic comments occur. This is startling since most of the midrash is derash, comments that are contrary to his purpose and which he avoids.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The targumist never explains Exodus contrary to Mekhiltaโ€™speshat, the textโ€™s plain and explicit meaning. He uses all, or virtually all Mekhilta interpretations that are peshatand neglects only the Mekhiltaโ€™sderash, halakhah, theology, legends and parables, since the Targum, as we said, is a translation and not a commentary. The reverse is not true: He deviates to add clarifications that are not in Mekhiltasince it was composed after this midrash.[26]ย ย ย ย ย 

Leviticus

The findings for Numbers and Exodus are repeated in Leviticus and Deuteronomy: The targumist relied on the late fourth century tannaitic midrashim for the translation of the biblical text. His deviations in Leviticus parallel the midrash Sifraโ€™s interpretation in 129 instances, including 82 times that he uses Sifraโ€™sword. Again, he never explains Leviticuscontrary to Sifraโ€™speshat, he incorporates all, or virtually all, of Sifraโ€™sinterpretations that are peshat and neglects its derash, halakhah, theology, legends and parables, and he has deviations that clarify the text that are not in Sifra.[27]

Deuteronomy

In Deuteronomy as well, Onkelosโ€™ deviations remarkably reflect the late fourth century tannaitic midrash Sifreiโ€™s interpretation in about a third of the verses in the less than half of Deuteronomywhere there is extant midrash. The Targum deviates 201 times using words reflecting interpretations in Sifrei. This represents about thirty percent of Sifreiโ€™s interpretations.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  A few statistics will demonstrate how remarkable this is. There are, for example, 489 verses in the first 17 chapters, the first half of Deuteronomy. Only 186 of these sentences, about 38 percent, have comments by Sifrei. The targumistโ€™s deviations from a literal rendering of Deuteronomy parallel Sifrei in 56 passages (in 60 instances) or about thirty per cent. The sentences where he does not reflect Sifrei are all instances, as we noted previously, where the midrash has derash. Thus, again, Onkelos contains all of virtually all of the non-aggadicSifrei material, and there is no instance where the Targum differs with this midrash except where the latter has derash or there is a scribal error in the Targum.[28]

Genesis

H. Albeck[29]noted that the author or authors of the fourth-century midrash Genesis Rabbah did not use Onkelos despite having difficulty in understanding verses that the targumist understood and translated. For example, Genesis Rabbah cites an incidentwhere rabbis wanted to know the Aramaic equivalent of a biblical word and had to travel to a place where Aramaic was spoken, and they did not look at Onkelos where the word is explained in Aramaic. Albeckโ€™s observations are supplemented in the authorโ€™s Targumic Studies.[30]We now know that the midrashโ€™s authors could not have utilized Onkelos as a source because it did not exist when the midrash was composed.

Conclusion

My studies of the Targum Onkelos Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible compared the words used in the Aramaic translation when the translator did not render the Bible literally with the language used in the late fourth century midrashim. The study showed that Onkelos consistently used the language in the midrashim.ย  There were a total of 698 similarities between Targum Onkelos to the four biblical books that we studied (excludingGenesis) to the text contained in the five midrashic volumes that we analyzed, most of which were exact quotes.[31]The Targum parallels these midrashim in a third of the verses where there are midrashic comments. Since the targumist drew material from these volumes, his Targum Onkelos had to have been composed after the end of the fourth century CE.

Since the editors of the Babylonian Talmud had Targum Onkelos in hand and were unable to recall its author, it stands to reason that the Targum must have been completed before the editing of this Talmud began in the fifth century. Thus a dating of 400 CE is probably very close to the exact date of our Targumโ€™s composition.

An afterword

It is worthwhile repeating the following from Targum Onkelos to Deuteronomy.

As to which composition, Sifrei or Targum Onkelos, is earlier there are four
possibilities. First, Sifrei was composed after Targum Onkelos and follows an
interpretative tradition that originated with or was incorporated into the
Targum. This is possible, but in view of the subtle, concise, and often
ambiguous nature of Targum Onkelosโ€™s deviations, it is doubtful that the editor
of Sifrei sat down, examined every deviation, found a reason for it, and then
wrote an expansion of it, proving his point by citing the opinion of tannaitic
sages who lived over a period of many generations. Furthermore, this would
fail to explain Sifreiโ€™s derash, the material in Targum Onkelos not included in
Sifrei, the collection of divergent tannaitic views, and so forth.ย 

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The second possibility is that both Sifrei and Targum Onkelos were composed
during several generations, by a series of authors, with mutual borrowing,
both basing their interpretations on the same rabbinic tradition, which was
transmitted orally or which was in written form, but is no longer extant.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Thirdly, it is similarly possible that both Sifrei and Targum Onkelos are based
on an earlier, more expansive Targum that is no longer extant. While both (2)
and (3) are possible, they are unlikely because of the remarkable and
consistent parallels between the two documents and for the other reasons
mentioned above. Furthermore, if Sifrei drew from a Targum, one would
expect some mention of a Targum among the many other sources that are
cited, but there is none in Sifrei.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The fourth possibility is that Sifrei preceded Targum Onkelos and the
author(s) of the Targum translated with โ€œone finger in the MT and another in
Sifrei.โ€ This would explain the remarkable parallelism and the additional
material in Targum Onkelos.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The author recognizes that his late fourth or early fifth century CE date for
Onkelos depends upon the generally accepted scholarly dating of the
tannaitic midrashim. A point can be made that versions of these midrashim
existed at an earlier time. The author would dismiss this idea because the
targumist follows the present midrashic text consistently and must have used
the final version. Another argument could insist upon the minority view of an
earlier redaction date for the midrashim. In any event, however one dates the
midrashim, the authorโ€™s contribution remains. The Onkelos targumist
borrowed from the tannaitic midrashim and must be dated after them.โ€™

Dr. Israel Drazin is the author of thirty-three books, twelve of which are on Targum Onkelos. His website is www.booksnthoughts.com



[1] The word โ€œTargumโ€ means โ€œtranslationโ€, โ€œinterpretationโ€, or โ€œversion.โ€ See Targum Onkelos to Genesis 42:23; Exodus 4:16, 7:1; Targum to II Chronicles 32:31; and Targum Sheni to Esther 3:8, 7:5. The words โ€œTargum Onkelos,โ€ as we shall see, denote โ€œthe Translation of Aquilas.โ€

ย ย  In the Babylonian Talmud, Kiddushin 49a, Rabbi Judah said: โ€œIf one translates a verse literally, he is a liar; if he adds thereto, he is a blasphemer and a libeler. Then what is a proper translation? Our translation.โ€

ย ย  The first mention of Targum Onkelos after the Babylonian Talmud does not occur until the seventh century. Sar Shalom in Sefer Shaarei Teshuvah, ed. F. Hirsch (Leipzig. 1858), 29c, and Seder Rab Amram (1865), 29.
[2] The translation is from The Babylonian Talmud, ed. I. Epstein, Soncino Press (London, 1938). This passage, it is important to note, is the only source for this legend. The verse itself is discussed again in the Babylonian Talmud, Nedarim 37b. If Onkelos received guidance from R. Eleazer and R. Joshua, who lived around 130 C.E, this opinion would date the translation to the early part of the second century.
[3] In the Babylonian Talmud, Avodah Zarah 11a and Gittin 56a, b, and 57a. Cf. Tosefta Shabbat 7(8):18; Haggigah 3:2 and 3; and the midrashim Genesis Rabbah 70:5 and Tanchuma 41a, Mishpatim 3.
[4] The Jerusalem Talmud, Megillah 1, 71c; Kiddushin 1, 59a; Haggigah 2:5, 77a. Although the contemporary English spelling is Aquila, the name is Aquilas in Greek and Hebrew. Those familiar with rabbinic studies will recall that errors in names frequently occur in the Talmud. While writing this note, the author was studying the Babylonian Talmud Bava Kamma and found the following errors in a few pages; R. Abba v. R. Abin in 112a; R. Ashi v. R. Assi in 112b, 113a, 114a; Rava v. Rabba in 114a, R. Huna v. R. Kahana in 114a, Rav v. Abbahu in 114b; and the Talmud itself was unsure of a name in 114b.
[5] See M. M. Kasher, Torah Shelemah 24 (Jerusalem, 1974), pages 155-161; and J. Reifman, Sedeh Aram (Berlin, 1875), pages 8-10.
[6] See Kasher, op. cit., pages 195-238, and Reifman, op. cit., pages 12-14. Numbers Rabbah is hardly older than the twelfth century. See The Jewish Encyclopedia, volume II, page 671, and Encyclopedia Judaica, volume 12, column 1261.
[7] Babylonian Talmud, Bava Bathra 99a: โ€œOnkelos the proselyte said, the cherubim were of tzaโ€™atzuโ€™im (image work) and their faces were turned sideways, as a student who is leaving his teacher.โ€ The statement is somewhat obscure. It probably comments upon II Chronicles 3:10 (where the word is spelt with ayins) by referring to a similar word in Isaiah22:24 (spelt with alephs). Targum Jonathan translates the latter word โ€œson,โ€ which suggests โ€œstudent.โ€ The reference to Onkelos is certainly incorrect. There is no Targum Onkelos to either the Writings or the Prophets, and Onkelos in the Pentateuch never translates โ€œcherubim.โ€ It always repeats the biblical Hebrew word. It is possible that the Talmud is referring to Jonathan ben Uzziel or Aquilas and not Onkelos.
[8] R. Jeremiah lived about 350 CE and his teacher R. Hiyya b. Abba, a generation earlier. It is likely that he did not make the statement that tradition attributes to him. First of all, the talmudic tradition is itself uncertain as to who made the statement. Secondly, since both R. Jeremiah and R. Hiyya b. Abba were scholars of Eretz Israel and not Babylon; the tradition, if correct, probably referred to the Eretz Israel Greek translation of Aquilas, and not the Babylonian Aramaic translation of โ€œour translation.โ€ Thirdly, in the Babylonian Talmud, Megillah 9b, R. Hiyya b. Abba is clearly speaking about the Greek Bible translation and seems to know nothing of the Aramaic version.
[9] H. Graetz, History of the Jews (Philadelphia, 1893), volume 2, pages 387, 581, 582, argues that the Aramaic translation โ€œwas made partly from that of Akylas (sic) on account of its simplicity, and was called Targum Onkelos.โ€ See the authorโ€™s Targum Onkelos to Deuteronomy (Ktav, 1982), pages 2, 14, 15, and A. E. Silverstone, Aquila and Onkelos (Manchester University Press, 1970), and other volumes cited therein.
[10] Note, for example, that ืชื’ื™ and ืžื“ืข in Palestinian Aramaic are ืชื ื’ื™ and ืžื ื“ืขin Babylonian Aramaic.ย  Another difference is that Onkelos is spelt with an aleph and Aquilas with an ayin. Many Palestinian words with an ayin were transposed in Babylonia to an alephbecause Babylonians had difficulty pronouncing laryngeals; for example, ืขื“=ืื“.
[11] See notes 4 and 5, and related text.
[12] See for example Mishnah Aboth 6: 6; Babylonian Talmud, Yevamot 97a; Jerusalem Talmud, Berachot 2:1 (4b). Also, many talmudic discussions are based on the idea that Amoraim never dispute a subject that was previously disputed in a Mishnah without citing the earlier dispute. See for example Babylonian Talmud, Gittin4a and 16b, middle of pages.
[13] M. H. Goshen-Gottstein, โ€œThe Language of Targum Onkelos and the model of Literary Diaglossia in Aramaic,โ€ JNES 37 (1978), pages 169-179; B. Grossfield, โ€œOnqelos, Halakhah and the Halakhic Midrashim,โ€ in D. R. G. Beattie and M. McNamara (editors), The Aramaic bible (1994), pages 228-46.
[14] See edition by A. Berliner (Leipzig, 1877).
[15] See for example P. Kahle, The Cairo Geneiza (Oxford, 1959), pages191-228; H. Albeck, Jubilee Volume to B. M. Lewin (1940), pages 93-104; A. Diez Macho, Neophyti, I: Genesis (1968), page 98; Leopold Zunz, Die Gottesdienstlichen Vortrรคge der Juden (Berlin, 1832). These views and others are discussed in I. Drazin, Targum Onkelos to Deuteronomy (Ktav, 1982), pages 2-6, and B. Grossfeld, Targum Onqelos to Genesis (Michael Glazier, 1988), pages 30-35. No critical evaluation was ever made of Berlinerโ€™s Masorah and every modern author refers to it without comment. The book and the conclusions drawn from it require extensive study. It should be noted that there was or were early Aramaic translations of parts of the Hebrew Bible, as confirmed by the fragments found in Qumran. See J. T. Milik, Discoveries in the Judean Desert, Volume 6: Qumran Grotte 4, II: Tefillin, Mezuzot, et Targums (4Q128-4Q157) Oxford, 1977. The comparison between these finds and Onkelos are discussed in I. Drazinโ€™s Targum Onkelos to Leviticus (Ktav, 1994), pages 36, 146, 149, 151.
[16] With the participation of the Center for Judaic Studies of the University of Denver, the author published, through the Ktav Publishing House, Targum Onkelos to Deuteronomy in 1982, Targum Onkelos to Exodus in 1990, Targum Onkelos to Leviticus in 1993, and Targum Onkelos to Numbers in 1998. Targum Onkelos to Genesis was written by Moses Aberbach and Bernard Grossfeld, and was published in 1982. The latter authors ascribe a dating of Onkelos โ€œtowards the end of the third century CEโ€ (page 9).
[17] A tannaitic document is one that transmits the views of the Jewish sages from the period of Hillel to the compilation of the Mishnah. This period began about 20 BCE and ended about 200 CE, although the documents may not have been committed to writing until a later time. The tannaitic midrashim were not redacted until the end of the fourth century.

ย ย ย  The tannaitic midrashim are Mekhilta deR. Ishmael and Mekhilta deR. Simeon b. Yochai to Exodus; Sifra to Leviticus; Sifrei and Sifrei Zutta to Numbers; and Sifrei and Midrash Tannaim to Deuteronomy. Each is individualistic in halakhic view, style, and character.

ย ย ย  Although the tannaitic midrashim appear, by their name, to have been composed during the tannaitic period, ending in the early third century, later scholars are mentioned therein. The tannaitic midrashim, in their present form, were unknown to the scholars in the two Talmuds and must have been composed in Eretz Israel no earlier than the end of the fourth century, after the completion of the Jerusalem Talmud. They were unknown in the Jerusalem Talmud because they were not yet composed. They were unknown in the Babylonian Talmud because of their composition in Eretz Israel. See Encyclopedia Judaica for sources regarding the dating of each midrash.

ย ย ย  J. Neusner, Midrash in Context (Fortress Press, 1983), dates the tannaitic midrashim in the fifth and sixth centuries. We will see in this study that (1) our targumist drew material from the midrashim, which must have pre-existed the Targum, and (2) the scholars of the Babylonian Talmud, composed and edited in the fifth and sixth century, mention our Targum but did not know the name of its author. Therefore, the Targum must have been composed before the Babylonian Talmud. Thus, a sixth-century date for the composition of the midrashim is incorrect.ย ย ย 
[18] This was done first in the Deuteronomy volume in pp. 8-10. This book showed the reliance of Onkelos upon the midrash Sifrei. The subsequent studies did the same with the other midrashim.
[19] The midrash Sifrei to Numbers comments on parts of nineteen of the thirty-six biblical chapters of Numbers (5-12; 15; 18-19; 25:1-13; 26:52-31:24; and 35:9-39), less than a third of the biblical text. It contains a considerable amount of aggadahand halakhah, items that Onkelos avoids, and has little narrative, areas where Targum Onkelos deviations abound.
[20] Onkelos has many Hebraisms because its audienceโ€™s language included many Hebrew words. They were used in the translation whenever the Hebrew was more familiar or understandable to the reader than the Aramaic equivalent. Similarly, although the midrash was composed in Hebrew, there are many Aramaic words in it.
[21]ืฉืงืจ twice, 5:6; ื›ื™ื•ืจ, 5:17; ื™ืคืจืฉ used in 6:2 to help define ื’ื–ืจ; equals Sifreiโ€™spisqahs7, 10, and 23, respectively.
ย ย ย  The exception of ื“ื‘ืจ in 12:1 (=pisqah 99) is understandable. Sifrei interprets ื“ื‘ืจ as โ€œharsh speech.โ€ This is derash, a homiletical exposition, and not a true definition; and Onkelos only translates according to the peshat, the simple meaning of the text. Yet, even in this instance, although the Targum does not quote the adjective โ€œharsh,โ€ it differentiates the two words, rendering ืžืœืœfor โ€œspeakโ€ and retaining ืืžืจ for the second.
[22] A chart of these instances is in I. Drazin, โ€œDating Targum Onkelos by means of the Tannaitic Midrashim,โ€ Journal of Jewish Studies, Autumn 1999.
[23] The 106 instances are listed in the Journal of Jewish Studies article.
[24] Like Sifrei, Sifrei Zutta was composed at the end of the fourth century CE. But, unlike the former, the latter disappeared and only fragments were rediscovered in the Genizah, in Yalkut Shimoni, Midrash ha-Gadol, and other works. H. S. Horovitz compiled these findings and published them in Sifrei al Sefer be-Midbar VeSifrei Zutta (1917). Later, J. N. Epstein published an additional large fragment in Tarbiz 1/1 (1930). Sifrei Zutta contains many halakhot that are not mentioned elsewhere and many that differ with those in the Mishnah. Its style and terminology are unique.
[25] These deviations are identified and explained in the authorโ€™s Targum series. See Note 16. Targum Onkelosโ€™s understanding and use of peshat will be addressed in the next chapter.
[26] See the authorโ€™s Targum Onkelos to Exodus (Ktav), pages 8-11, 32-33, for details.
[27] See the authorโ€™s Targum Onkelos to Leviticus (Ktav), pages 9-11, 26-28, for details.
[28] See the authorโ€™s Targum Onkelos to Deuteronomy (Ktav), pages 9-10, 43-44, for details.
[29]โ€œMekoroth Ha-Bereshit Rabbah,โ€ Einleitung und Register zu Berechit Rabba volume 3 (Jerusalem 1965), pages 44-54. Albeck did not reach the authorโ€™s discovery that the Onkelos targumist took material from the tannaitic midrashim.
[30] See the authorโ€™s Targumic Studies, โ€œAnalysis of Targum Onkelos Deviations to Genesisโ€ (University Microfilms International, 1981), pages 1-76.
[31] No study was made of Bereshit Rabbah, Mekhilta deR. Simeon b. Yochai and Midrash Tannaim.The author believes that more parallels will be found between Targum Onkelos and the other tannaitic midrashim when these books are studied.
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ื•ึฐื”ึธืึฑืžึถืช ื•ึฐื”ึทืฉืึผึธืœื•ึนื ืึฑื”ึธื‘ื•ึผ; On Changing the Immutable by Marc B. Shapiro

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ื•ึฐื”ึธืึฑืžึถืช ื•ึฐื”ึทืฉืึผึธืœื•ึนื ืึฑื”ึธื‘ื•ึผ; On Changing the Immutable by Marc B. Shapiro
By Yitzchok Stroh

Professor Marc Shapiroโ€™s latest work,ย Changing the Immutable, contains considerable interesting and pertinent information for the student of Jewish history. As stated on the cover, the author attempts to reveal how the (Jewish) orthodox 'establishment' silences both past and present dissenting voices through "Orthodox Judaism Rewriting Its History." I don't intend this to be a review of the entire work (that would take a lot more time and space), however I did want to share some of my frustration here, because I sense that the author's bias affected his objectivity, and I am afraid that many a reader will be left with an impression that in many ways does not reflect the reality of this complex topic. In this article, I would like to examine oneย passage of Shapiroโ€™s work to illustrate this point.ย In chapter eight, entitled, โ€œIs the truth really that important?โ€ Shapiro writes:

Because my purpose in this chapter is to chart the outer limits of what has been viewed as acceptable when it comes to falsehood and deception. I will be focusing on the more โ€˜liberalโ€™ positions. My aim is to show just how far some rabbinic decisors were willing to go in sanctioning deviations from the truth. One must bear in mind, however, that there are often views in opposition to the ones I shall be examining. Perhaps this knowledge can serve as a counterweight to the shock that many readers will experience upon learning of some of the positions I will mention.
One โ€˜liberalโ€™ position was expressed by R. Moses Isserles, who went so far as to say that one can even slander someone for the sake of preserving the community. The particular case he was discussing concerned a terrible community dispute that had created the possibility that the Jewish population would be expelled from the city. In what many will find a problematic decision, Isserles offered the opinion, which was then put into action,ย that it was acceptable to provide false information about an individual whom the government suspected of wrongdoing, if this would alleviate the situation.ย Although the Talmud states, with regard to giving a man up for execution in response to a demand made by non-Jews, that this is not the way of the pious, Isserles defended his approach:ย โ€œEven if we did not act in accord with the way of the pious, nevertheless, we acted in accord with the law. I have proven that it is permitted to speak leshon hara [slander] in order to preserve peace.โ€[1]
Here, Shapiro portrays theย ืจืž"ื, the primary codifier of halacha for Ashkenazic Jewry, to have ruled that for the sake of preserving the peace, it is acceptable to provide false information to non-Jewish authorities about a presumably innocent individual whom the government suspected of wrongdoing.
Shocking indeed.

Unfortunately, Shapiro fails to present theย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”ย of theย ืจืž"ืย thoroughly and accurately, and as a result, the reader is left with an erroneous understanding of the opinion of theย ืจืž"ื. Furthermore, Shapiro fails to present the relevant section of Talmud precisely, which may lead to further misunderstanding.ย I am not accusing Professor Shapiro of intentional distortion, butย ื—ื–"ืœย do teach usย ื”ื•ื™ ื–ื”ื™ืจ ื‘ืชืœืžื•ื“ ืฉืฉื’ื’ืช ืชืœืžื•ื“ ืขื•ืœื” ื–ื“ื•ืŸย -- so, with this in mind, I would like to offer a more careful presentation of the Remaโ€™s position as a counterweight for those who've read this (inaccurately presented) 'shocking' position of theย ืจืž"ื.

ืกื™ืžืŸ ื™"ืย inย ย ืฉื•"ืช ื”ืจืž"ืย is written in complicated rabbinic style, and does not provide a full account of what transpired -- but, as theย ืจืž"ืย writes in the introduction to theย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”, we should be able to extract sufficient background information as necessary for our purposes[2]: ย 

Theย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”ย is aย ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืชื ืฆืœื•ืช[3]ย (a โ€œwrit of justificationโ€) defending actions taken by theย ื‘ื™ืช ื“ื™ืŸย of theย ืจืž"ืย in response to a local crisis, and as the ย ืจืž"ืย makes it quite clear in his description of the events, the ensuing bitter results were unexpected and troubling:

ย ... ื”ื ื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืืœื” ืœืฉืœื•ื ื ืชื›ื•ื•ื ื• ื‘ืขืฆื ื•ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ืืฃ ื›ื™ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืžืจื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ืื—ืจื•ื ื”, ื•ืืฃ ืžืงืฆืช ืขื–ื™ ืคื ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืงืจื‘ื ื• ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืžื”ืคื›ื™ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื• ืœืชื•ื”ื• ื•ื‘ื”ื•. ืžื™ื”ื• ืื ื• ืœืฉื ืฉืžื™ื ื ืชื›ื•ื•ื ื•, ื•ื”ื›ืœ ื ืžืฉืš ืื—ืจ ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ื•ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื”. ืืฃ ื›ื™ ืื—ืจื™ืชื• ืจืืฉ ื•ืœืขื ื”.ย "Behold in this entire incident our intention was peace, first and foremost, even though by happenstance the end was bitter. There were also a few brazen individuals amongst us, who are now turning things into utter chaos. However, our intent was for the sake of Heaven, and 'everything follows oneโ€™s thoughts and intentions', even though the end was gall and wormwood."

While it is probably impossible to reconstruct a precise account of the incident, the following is obvious from the details presented in theย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”: (1) The government did not suspect anyone of any type of wrongdoing[4]. (2) It was not an individual that was slandered; it was a group of about one hundred respectable community leaders or activists that were slandered. (3) False information was never provided to non-Jewish authorities, and those slandered were not slandered publicly -- they were slandered in a private ruling by the decision of aย ื‘ื™ืช ื“ื™ืŸย which was then recorded in a written document. (4) Furthermore, the document was fashioned in a manner which made it evident that the ruling was an exaggeration and not an actual account, and (5) it was drafted only to be used as a means of forcing two opposing sides to reconcile a community quarrel. Unfortunately, (6) the document did become public knowledge and its intention was misconstrued by unscrupulous individuals.[5]ย And (7) there were dire consequences, probably due to involvement of the non-Jewish authorities, but we do not know what those consequences were.

The actual events that led up to this action are described at length and can be summed up as follows:
A group of pretentious rabbinic and lay leaders[6]ย convened to place a ban on a certain individual, causing him great harm[7]. (The reason for the ban is not clear.) This individual then sought to take revenge upon those who had placed the ban upon him[8]ย and was joined by others who sympathized with his cause,[9]ย ultimately splitting the entire community between his supporters and his enemies[10]. This caused a tremendous desecration of G-dโ€™s name as the strife continued to escalate[11], which led to placing the entire community in danger of being expelled by the authorities[12].

Theย ืจืž"ืย and his colleagues attempted to intercede with the individualโ€™s opponents, but were completely ignored[13], and the matter escalated to the point of death threats against the man upon whom the ban had been placed[14]. In an attempt to resolve matters, theย ืจืž"ืย and his partners decided to write a fictitious halachic ruling[15], containing exaggerated and slanderous accusations against the individual's opponents, with the goal being that the individual in question would then use this document to extort the ruling written against him from his enemies, whereby both the documents would be exchanged and destroyed.ย 

Now, before you extrapolate from here that theย ืจืž"ืย ย had a flippant attitude towards honesty, please consider:

(1) Theย ืจืž"ืย and his colleagues were quite concerned about the possibility that this individual might use the document inappropriately (i.e. reveal its contents to the authorities), and to prevent this, they had him swear a strict oath that he would not show the document to anyone else, and that he would only use it to get his opponents to hand over their originalย ื—ืจืย document to him[16]. Anyone familiar with the severity of an oath in Jewish law, and the general fear of swearing falsely at that time, will understand why the outcome was quite a surprise to the rabbis who signed this slanderous document. Furthermore,ย ืจืž"ืย had taken additional steps to insure that the document would be null and void if misused, and as theย ืจืž"ืย concludes in his justification,ย "ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื ื—ืชื ืœื”ืจืข ื‘ื• ืœืฉื•ื ืื“ื ื—ืœื™ืœื” ืœื ื• ืžืจืฉืข"ย (...it was not signed to inflict harm upon any person; G-d forbid that we should do evil).

(2) Regardless of the fact that the slanderous ruling and the resulting document were extremely limited in nature and not meant to be seen by the public (and certainly not the government), theย ืจืž"ืย was clearly still troubled by the elements of dishonesty. He makes it quite obvious that he felt that he had no choice, and that it was entirely out ofย concern for the safety of the community that made speaking and writing falsely and negatively about fellow Jews necessary in this case. It is this decision that theย ืจืž"ืย is attempting to justify in hisย ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืชื ืฆืœื•ืชย - and as we will see, this was hardly taken lightly.

Theย ืจืž"ืย goes on to quote various sources to support his decision, and proceeds, in rabbinic style, to argue the point by analyzing a Talmudic ruling. Shapiro, when he discusses the Talmudic ruling tells only half the story. Shapiro writes, โ€œThe Talmud states, with regard to giving a man up for execution in response to a demand made by non-Jews, that this is not the way of the pious.โ€ย However, as we shall see, giving a man up for execution in response to a demand made by non-Jews has nothing to do with the pious -- indeed, it is strictly forbidden according to the Talmud. The Mishnah inย ืชืจื•ืžื•ืชย rules that if non-Jews were to approach a group of Jewish women and demand that they hand over one of them be defiled or else they would defile all of them, that it is forbidden to hand over one of the women. The Talmud Yerushalmi adds that the same rule would apply in a situation where a non-Jew demands of a group of Jews that they hand over one Jew to be executed or else they would all be killed, that it is likewise forbidden to hand over one of them[17].ย 

In thisย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”ย theย ืจืž"ืย applies an analogy: Just as it is forbidden to save the lives or the innocence of all through giving over one individual to be defiled or killed, so too it would be forbidden to slander, ridicule, and deride one individual, or a group of individuals (even if no one ever became aware of the slander) in order to remove slander and ridicule from the entire community.

However, theย ืจืž"ืย sees two distinctions between the cases: Firstly, the halachah that forbids giving someone over applies to a situation where it is done with an action, whereas if it is a matter of speech it would be permitted. Meaning that if the powers that be needed information with which they could kill one of the group, and they threatened that unless that information is provided they would kill them all, it would be permissible to give this information -- since by merely providing information they are not directly participating in the action of murder, and therefore they would not be considered accomplices to the execution. So too in our situation, since slander is a matter of speech, the Talmud's aforementioned rule would not apply. And secondly, the prohibition not to give someone over to the gentiles, is only in a case where they do not request a specific individual. However, were the non-Jews to demand a specific individual to defile or kill, and threaten that if he isn't turned over they would defile or kill the entire group, then it would be permitted to turn him over. Theย ืจืž"ืย compared the situation in his city to a situation where specific individuals are being targeted; therefore he permitted falsehood andย ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืจืขย to be spoken.

Regarding this second limitation, theย ืจืž"ืย questions his ruling based on the following anecdote related in the Talmud Yerushalmi: An individual was sought by the royal government, and he escaped toย ืœื•ื“. When the government surrounded theย ืžื“ื™ื ื”,ย ืจ'ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ื‘ืŸ ืœื•ื™ย handed him over to them. Until this point in time it had been common for Eliyahu HaNavi to visit R. Yehoshua, but after this incident,ย ืืœื™ื”ื• ื”ื ื‘ื™ืย ceased his visits. Subsequently, R. Yehoshua fasted many fasts, and Eliyahu appeared to him, and said, โ€œShall I reveal myself to a slanderer?โ€ To which Rโ€™ Yehoshua responded, โ€œBut have I not acted according to theย ืžืฉื ื”?โ€ ย To this Eliyahu replied, โ€œCan this be consideredย ืžืฉื ืช ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ื?โ€

It is in response to this that theย ืจืž"ืย states, "even if we did not act in accordance with 'the way of the pious', nevertheless, we acted in accordanceย with the law."ย It seems reasonable to assume that since the slander recorded in the document written by theย ืจืž"ืย and his colleagues was never meant to be seen by anyone and would have alleviated the threat of expulsion, theย ืจืž"ืย felt that it was not necessary to follow โ€œthe ways of the piousโ€ and was satisfied with following the letter of the law[18]. Hence, Shapiroโ€™s claim in the name of theย ืจืž"ืย โ€œthat it was acceptable to provide false information about an individual whom the government suspected of wrongdoing if this would alleviate the situationโ€ย is neither fair nor accurate.

In conclusion, I think it is fair to say that the position of theย ืจืž"ืย inย ืฉื•"ืช ื”ืจืž"ื ืกื™ืžืŸ ื™"ืย does not represent a radical position which may shock many readers as being โ€œon the outer limits of what has been viewed as acceptable when it comes to falsehood and deceptionโ€. Rather, there is no reason not to view this as the position of a responsible community leader of a high moral caliber, and it is unfortunate that he has been portrayed differently.

Postscript:

Although the following does not affect the above, I include it for whatever historical interest it may have: From the language ofย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื™"ืย inย ืฉื•"ืช ื”ืจืž"ืย (ืงื”ืœืชื ื•, ืขื™ืจื ื•, ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื•, = our community, our city, our streets) it seems almost certain that the case under discussion took place in the authorโ€™s city. ย If the author was theย ืจืž"ื, that city would be Cracow, Poland where theย ืจืž"ืย served as Rav from an extremely young age until his passing. However R. Asher Ziv, the Remaโ€™s biographer and editor of hisย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช, suggests that the incident took place in the city of Prague in Bohemia[19]; a city plagued by strife and under the constant threat of expulsion. Since the fiveย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืชย followingย ืกื™ืžืŸ ื™"ืย inย ืฉื•"ืช ื”ืจืž"ืย were written by various rabbanim regarding problems in the city of Prague, it is not unlikely thatย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื™"ืย also concerns a dispute in Prague.

Based on the above, it would seem plausible to conclude thatย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื™"ืย was not even authored by theย [20]ืจืž"ื; rather it was sent to him by a colleague from Prague[21]. It is additionally possible that theย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”ย was in no way connected to theย ืจืž"ื, however, since theย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”ย was found among the otherย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืชย relating to Prague it was included accidently. This would not be all that surprising, since we do know that there areย ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืชย inย ืฉื•"ืช ื”ืจืž"ืย which were erroneously included in the collection[22].
ย  ย 
Response by Marc B. Shapiro

Let me begin by thanking Rabbi Yitzchok Stroh and the many others who have read my book carefully, especially those who have sent comments. Some readers have pointed out errors or alternative ways to read passages and others have called attention to important new sources. I have already mentioned some of these in past posts and will continue to do so in future posts.

Stroh believes that my presentation of a responsum of R. Moses Isserles is inaccurate and suggests that it was my bias that led to my objectivity being affected. I am not sure what my bias would be in this case, presumably a desire to make use of an important source in support of my argument.

Strohโ€™s summary of the responsum is helpful, especially since as Stroh notes it is difficult to reconstruct exactly what happened. The beginning of the case was, as Stroh states:

A group of pretentious rabbinic and lay leaders convened to place a ban on a certain individual, causing him great harm. (The reason for the ban is not clear.)

In reading over the responsum, I think that the reason for the ban is explained on p. 56 in Sievโ€™s edition. It states:
ืขืœื™ื• ื ื’ื–ืจื” ื’ื–ื™ืจื” ื•ื ื—ืชืš ืขืœื™ื• ื“ื™ืŸ ืžืกื•ืจ ื”ื’ืžื•ืจื”

I assume this means that they regarded him as aย moser, and that is why he was placed under the ban. Earlier it states regarding this manย ื•ื“ืžื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืชืจย which apparently alludes to the fact that aย moserย should be killed.

Stroh notes that I am mistaken in assuming that the government suspected one of the Jews of wrongdoing and that R. Isserles ruled that false information could be provided if this was the only way to save the community. He also states that contrary to my presentation, it was not one person who was to be slandered but numerous community leaders.

I have read over the responsum and I have to agree that the slander was not directed against one person but against a group, so I thank Stroh for this correction. In fact, I am not the only one to make this mistake, and am indeed in good company (not that this is in any way an excuse). Nachum Rakover also describes the case as being one of slander against an individual.[23]

ืžื•ืฆื™ืื™ ื”ื“ื™ื‘ื” ืงื™ื•ื•, ืฉืื "ื™ืฉื ื• ืืช ื˜ืขืžื", ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ื™ืฉืงืจื• ืื•ื“ื•ืชย ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžื”ืงื”ื™ืœื”, ื™ืขืœื” ื‘ื™ื“ื ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืฉืœื•ื ืขืœ ื›ื ื•.

Based on this, Rakover then has an entire section dealing with if it is OK to sacrifice an individual to save the many.

R. Aryeh Pomeranchik writes:[24]

ื‘ืชืฉื•'ื”ืจืž"ื ืกื™'ื™"ื ืœืžื“ ืžื–ื”, ื“ืžื•ืชืจ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืฉื ืจืขย ืขืœ ืื—ื“ย ืžืŸ ื”ืฆื‘ื•ืจ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฉืงื™ื˜ ื‘ื–ื” ื”ืžืจื™ื‘ื” ืฉื ืคืœื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฆื‘ื•ืจ ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื•ื
R. Aharon David Goldberg writes:[25]

ืืžื ื ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืจืž"ื ืกื™'ื™"ื ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื“ืœื ื›ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, ืฉื“ืŸ ื‘ืฉืืœื” ืื ืžื•ืชืจ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืฉื ืจืขย ืขืœ ืื—ื“ย ืžืŸ ื”ืฆื‘ื•ืจ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฉืงื™ื˜ ืžืจื™ื‘ื”

R. Yitzchak Zilberstein might also make this error (although it could be that he was simply not being exact in his description of the case, as his focus is on the underlying halakhah):[26]

ื•ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืจืž"ื (ืกื™ืžืŸ ื™ื) ืœืžื“ ืžื–ื”, ืฉืžื•ืชืจ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืฉื ืจืข ืขืœย ืื—ื“, ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฉืงื™ื˜ ื‘ื–ื” ืžืจื™ื‘ื” ืฉื ืคืœื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื•ื.

It is certain, however, that R. Zilberstein is mistaken when he states[27]ย ืฉืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ืจืž"ื ืœื ื”ืชื™ืจ, as the entire responsum is indeed a justification of the action which occurred, and R. Isserles states: โ€œEven if we did not in accordance with โ€˜the way of the piousโ€™, nevertheless, we acted in accordance with the law.โ€

What about the non-Jewish government? Again, I have to agree with Stroh that there is no evidence that the slander was ever directly reported to the government, although I still assume that R. Isserles would agree that to save the community, one would even be permitted to slander someone to the non-Jewish authorities, not merely to the Jewish community. As I see it, and please correct me if I am wrong, the entire logic of R. Isserlesโ€™ responsum leads to this result even if, in the case under discussion, the slander was intended to remain in the Jewish community. How else is one to understand his words (p. 53):

ื“ืžื•ืชืจ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืฉื ืจืข ืื ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืœืฉืžื™ื ื•ืœืชื›ืœื™ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืฉืœื•ื

I thank Rabbi Stroh for setting the record straight.

Regarding giving up a man for execution in response to a demand made by non-Jews, I thought I was clear that we were dealing with a demand for a specific person, the details of which Stroh properly explains. Yet I should have also mentioned that the case must be one where the entire community will itself be killed if they do not give up the man.[28]

In his conclusion, Stroh states that the position of R. Isserles should not be seen as radical. โ€œRather, there is no reason not to view this as the position of a responsible community leader.โ€ Yet I still think that in the eyes of most people what R. Isserles agreed to will be seen as โ€œon the outer limits of what has been viewed as acceptable.โ€ In fact, R. Daniel Eidensohn, who translates some of R. Isserlesโ€™ responsumย here, writes as follows: โ€œAs far as I know the ruling of the Rema was not accepted and is not cited with approval by anyone else. It is the thinking, however, of one our major poskim and illustrates how important community peace is.โ€

R. Israel Zev Minzberg finds the permission to slander another for the sake of peace incomprehensible, and states that one cannot rely on this ruling.[29]

ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืชืฉื•'ื”ื ื–'ื ืคืœืื• ืžืžื ื™ ื•ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืื™ืŸ ืœืกืžื•ืš ืข"ื– ืœืžืขืฉื” ื›ืœืœ ื•ื›ืœืœ.

R. Yitzhak Hutner also found the responsum unacceptable and stated that it was not written by R. Isserles.[30]ย In other words, contrary to Stroh, Rabbis Eidensohn, Minzberg and Hutner do find the conclusion of the responsum surprising, and indeed โ€œon the outer limitsโ€.

Finally, I must note that R. Zilberstein refers to the responsum of R. Isserles in another place where he discusses the following problem:[31]ย Reuven is a very good and God-fearing student. His brother Shimon is not, and causes Reuven all sorts of serious problems. The teacher of Reuven wants to stop Shimon from doing this, and the only way to do so is to tell Shimonโ€™s father, Yaakov, that Shimon said that he was going to steal from Yaakov in order to hire some thugs who would attack Reuven. When Yaakov hears this, he will take steps against Shimon and this will stop Shimonโ€™s harassment of Reuven. Is it permitted for the teacher to lie about Shimon in order to protect Reuven?[32]

R. Zilberstein concludes that it is permitted to tell Yaakov the falsehood about Shimon, since Shimon is a โ€œbaโ€™al mahaloketโ€. In addition to citing R. Isserlesโ€™ responsum, he also cites an opinion of the Hafetz Hayyim.[33]ย The Hafetz Hayyim states that if one sees that a certain individual will be a bad influence on his son or student, he should warn him to keep away from this individual. If, however, by telling the truth about this individual, it will not be enough to keep oneโ€™s son or student away, the Hafetz Hayyim states that โ€œit is possibleโ€ that it is permitted to exaggerate the individualโ€™s wrongdoing, on the condition that one does thisย le-shem shamayimย and not because of any personal grudge.

ื•ืœืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ืคืจื˜ ืฉืœื ื™ื’ื“ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื ืื ื™ืกืคืจ ืœื”ื ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื ืœื ื™ืชืจื—ืงื• ืžืืชื• ื•ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื‘ื•ื ืžื–ื” ืจื™ืขื•ืชื ืืคืฉืจ ื“ืžื•ืชืจ ืœื’ื“ืœ

Although the Hafetz Hayyim shows some hesitation as to whether this is permissible, R. Zilberstein has no such qualms and concludes that it is permitted to lie for the good purpose of helping Reuven.

This decision provides further proof for my point that there are many voices in the tradition that sanction departing from the truth when they deem it necessary.



[1]ย Shapiro,ย Changing the Immutable, p. 255.
[2]ย All excerpts fromย ืฉื•"ืช ื”ืจืž"ืย are from Rโ€™ Asher Zivโ€™s 1970 edition.ย "ื™ื‘ื™ื ื• ื”ืงื•ืจื ืžืขืฆืžื• ืžืชื•ืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ื”ืชื ืฆืœื•ืช ื‘ืขืฆืžื•". (ืฉื•"ืช ื”ืจืž"ื ื "ื‘ ืข"ื‘.)
[3]ย "ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืชื ืฆืœื•ืช ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ืžืขืฉื” ืฉื ืขืฉื” ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื˜ืขืžื™ื ืžืคื ื™ ืจื“ื™ืคืช ืฉืœื•ื" (ืฉื).
[4]ย ื›ื ืจืื” ืฉื˜ืขื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืฉืคื™ืจื ื ื•ื‘ืข ืžื‘'ืงื˜ืขื™ื ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ืช ื”ืจืž"ื, ื”ื' - ืžืžื” ืฉื›ื•ืชื‘ ื”ืจืž"ื ืฉื ืขืž'ื "ื“ "ื•ื‘ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื“ื™ื“ืŸ ื™ื™ื—ื“ ืœื ื• ืื—ื ืžื”ื, ืฉืื•ืžืจ ื”ืื•ื™ื‘ ื›ื™ ื ืคืฉื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ืืœื• ื”ื™ื” ืžื‘ืงืฉ ื›ืžื• ืฉื ืชื‘ืืจ", ื•ื›ื ืจืื” ืฉืฉืคื™ืจื ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืื•ื™ื‘ ืื™ื ื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืžืื™ืฉื™ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”, ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืฉื”"ืื•ื™ื‘"ื”ื•ื ืื•ืชื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื—ืจื ืžืชื—ืœื” ื›ืคื™ ืฉืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื”ืื•ื™ื‘ ืฉืœ ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื”ืงืฆื™ื ื™ื ืฉื”ื—ืจื™ืžื• ืื•ืชื•. ืขื™'ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื• ื‘ืคื ื™ื.ย 
ื”ื‘' - ืžืžื” ืฉื›ื•ืชื‘ ื”ืจืž"ื "ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืœืžืกื•ืจ ื ืคืฉ ืื—ืช ืžื™ืฉืจืืœ ..."ย  ื•ืฉืคื™ืจื ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืœืžืกื•ืจ ื ืคืฉ ืื—ืช ืžื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืขื›ื•"ื, ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื•ืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื›ืคื™ ืฉื›ื•ืชื‘ ื”ืจืž"ื ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ืื•ื“ื•ืช ืžืกื™ืจื” ืœืœืขื’ ื•ืœืงืœืก ื•ืœื”ื•ืฆืืช ืฉื ืจืข ื›ืžื• ืฉื›ื•ืชื‘ ื”ืจืž"ื "ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ืœืžืกื•ืจ ื ืคืฉ ืื—ืช ืžื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืœืขื’ ื•ืœืงืœืก ื•ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืขืœื™ื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืืฉืจ ืœื ื›ืŸ. ื›"ืฉ ืขืœ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื›ืžืื” ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื”, ื›ืžื• ืฉืขืฉื• ื‘ืžืขืฉื” ืืฉืจ ืื‘ืืจ ืœืžื˜ื”"ื•ื›ืคื™ ืžื” ืฉืžื‘ืืจ ื”ืจืž"ื ืœืžื˜ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ืœื ืžืกื™ืจื” ืœืื™ื ื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื.
ื•ื’ื ื‘ื”ืงื˜ืข ืฉื ื "ื” ืข"ื "ื“ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืฉืคืช ื™ืชืจ ืขืœ ืงืฆื™ื ื™ ืืจืฅ ืœื™ืชืŸ ืื•ืชื ืœืคื ื™ ื‘ื ื™ ื‘ืœื™ืขืœ"ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืขืœ ื”ืžืกื™ืจื” ืœืคื ื™ ืื•ื™ื‘ื™ื”ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื”ื "ืœ ื•ื—ื‘ื™ืจื™ื•.
[5]ย ืฉื ืขืž'ย  "... ื•ืžืคืจืฉ ื‘ื• (ื‘ื”ืคืกืง ื“ื™ืŸ) ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื–ืจื™ื ืืฉืจ ืœื ืขืœื• ืขืœ ืœื‘ื ื• ืžืขื•ืœื, ื•ื”ืชื—ื‘ืจื• ืืœื™ื• ืื ืฉื™ื ืจืงื™ื ... ืžื•ืฆื™ืื™ ื“ื‘ื”..."
[6]ย ืฉืžื›ื ืฃ ื”ืืจืฅ ืฉืžืขื ื• ืฉื ืชื—ื‘ืจื• ื™ื—ื“ ื›ืชืจื ื’ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ื•ืงื™ื, ื•ืขื™'ื‘ืจืฉ"ื™ ื™ื‘ืžื•ืช ืค"ื“ ืข"ื ืฉืคื™'ื‘ืงื™ืื™ื ื•ื—ืจื™ืคื™ื ื•ืื™ืŸ ืžื ื™ื—ื™ื ืชืจื ื’ื•ืœ ื ื›ืจื™ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื.
[7]ย ืฉื ื "ื” ืข"ื "ื•ื–ื” ื”ืžืขืฉื” ืืฉืจ ืื™ืจืข ืœื ืจืื™ื ื• ืžืขืฉื” ืžืขื•ืœื ื›ื–ื” ืœืจื•ืข, ืฉืžื›ื ืฃ ื”ืืจืฅ ืฉืžืขื ื• ืฉื ืชื—ื‘ืจื• ื™ื—ื“ ื›ืชืจื ื’ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ื•ืงื™ื ื›ืœ ืจื•ืขื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืื–ื™ื ื• ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ืืจืฅ ื’ื•ื“ืจื™ ืคืจืฅ ืคืจืฉื• ืžืฆื•ื“ืชื ื‘ื ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ื•ื ืœื›ื“ ื‘ื—ืจืžื ื•ื‘ืžืฆื•ื“ืชื ื•ื›ื“ื’ื™ ื”ื™ื ื™ืืกื•ืฃ ื‘ืžืฆื•ืชื, ื•ื“ืžื• ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืชืจ ื•ื›ืกื”ื• ื‘ืขืคืจ."
[8]ย ืฉื "ื”ื "ืœ ืจืฆื” ืขืœ ืื•ื™ื‘ื™ื• ืฉื”ืžืฆื™ืื• ืขืœื™ื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืœื ืงื•ื ื•ื‘ื”ื ื”ืชืขื‘ืจ ื”ืฆืจื™ื— ื•ืืฃ ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจ."
[9]ย ืฉื "ื•ื ืชื—ื‘ืจื• ืืœื™ื• ืื ืฉื™ื ืœืขื–ืจืชื•, ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื ืฆืจ ื‘ืฆืจืชื•."
[10]ย ืฉื "ื•ื‘ืกื‘ืช ื–ื” ื ื—ืœืงื” ื”ืงื”ืœื” ืœืฉื ื™ื ..."
[11]ย Apparently the strife came to be judged before the authorities as theย ืจืž"ืย writes:ย "ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื™ื” ื™ื“ื•ืข ืžืงื“ืžื•ืช ื“ื ื ืœื›ืœ ื‘ืื™ ืฉืขืจ ืขื™ืจื ื•, ื”ืžืขืฉื™ื ื”ืจืขื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ื ื’ื“ ืคื ื™ื ื•,ย ื•ืื•ื™ื‘ื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื• ืคืœื™ืœื™ื. ื•ื›ืืŸ ื›ื ืจืื” ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืœืื•ื™ื‘ื™ื ืื™ื ื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื›ืžืืžืจ ืจื–"ืœ ื”ืžื•ื‘ื ื‘ืจืฉ"ื™ ืจื™ืฉ ืคืจืฉืช ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื.ย ย 
[12]ย ืฉื. "ื•ื‘ื–ื” ื ืชืžื•ื˜ื˜ื• ืขืžื•ื“ื™ ืืจืฅ ื•ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ื”. ื•ื”ื™ื” ืœื—ื•ืฉ ื‘ืŸ ื™ืคื•ืง ื—"ื• ื—ื•ืจื‘ื ืžื™ื ื™ื” ืžืืช ืคื ื™ ื”ืžืœืš ื•ื”ืฉืจื™ื ืœื’ืจืฉ ื›ืœ ื”ืขื ื”ื–ื” ื›ื•ืœื• ื›ื”ื ื™ื” ื•ืฉืจื™ื”."
[13]ย ืฉื. "ืคืชื—ื ื• ืœืฉืœื•ื ื•ื“ื‘ืจื ื• ืขื ื”ืฆื“ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžื ื’ื“ ืœื”ืฉืœื™ื ืืชื• ื•ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื”ื ื›ืžืชืขืชืข"
[14]ย ืฉื. "[ื•ืืžืจื•] ื›ื™ ืœื ื™ืฉืงื˜ื• ืขื“ ืืฉืจ ืจืฆื• ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื•" (ื‘ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื›ืชื•ื‘ ืขื“ ืฉืจืฆื• ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืื•ืชื ื•).
[15]ย ืฉื ืขืž'ื "ื–: "ื’ื ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืฉื˜ืจ ื ื™ื›ืจ ื›ื™ ืœื ื“ื™ื ื ืขื‘ื“ื ื• ืจืง ืข"ื“ ื’ื™ื–ื•ื ... ื›ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ืจ ืžื–ื•ื™ืฃ ืžืชื•ื›ื• ... ื”ืฉื˜ืจ ื‘ื˜ืœ ื•ืžื‘ื•ื˜ืœ ... ื›ื™ ืœื ื ืชืงืŸ ืืœื ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืฉืœื•ื ..."
[16]ย ืฉื ื "ื•: "ื›ื™ ื ืฉื‘ืข ืœื ื• ืฉื‘ื•ืขื” ื—ืžื•ืจื” ืฉืœื ืจืฆื” ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื”ืฉื˜ืจ ื”ื—ืชื•ื ืœืขื•ืœื ื•ื‘ืฉืžื ื• ืœื ื™ื”ื ื ืงืจื. ืจืง ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืชืคืืจ ื‘ื• ืฉื’ื ืœื• ื—ืชื•ืžื™ื ื›ืืœื”, ื‘ืื•ืœื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืข"ื™ ื–ื” ื”ืฉื˜ืจ ื”ื—ืชื•ื ืขืœื™ื• (ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉื˜ืจ ื”ื—ืจื) ื•ื™ื‘ื•ืื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื–ื” ืœื”ืฉืœื™ื ืืชื•, ื•ื™ื‘ืขืจื• ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฆื“ื“ื™ื ื”ืฉื˜ืจื•ืช ืžืŸ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ื•ืื ื›ื›ื” ื”ื™ื” ืขืฉื” ืœื ื• ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ืืœื ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื”ืฉื ื™ืชื‘ืจืš ... ืื‘ืœ ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืขืฉื™ื ื• ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืื—ืจืช ื›ื™ ืื ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ืฉืœื•ื. ื•ืื ืœื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืขืœื™ื• ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืœื ื• ืืช ื—ืชื™ืžืชื ื•."
[17]ย ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉื›ืœ ื–ื”ย  ืžื™ื™ืจื™ ืืฃ ื›ืฉื‘ืจื•ืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ืืช ื›ื•ืœื, ื•ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื ืื ื ืžืฆืื• ื›ืžื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื‘ื ื™ืŸ ื•ื™ืฉ ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ื”ื ื›ืจื™ื ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ื›ื•ืœื ืข"ื™ ืฉื™ืคื•ืฆืฆื• ื›ืœ ื”ื‘ื ื™ืŸ, ื•ื”ื ื›ืจื™ื ืžื‘ืงืฉื™ื ืœืžืกื•ืจ ืœื”ื ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืืกื•ืจ ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืœืžื•ืกืจื• ืœื”ื. ื•ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื•ื ื›ื™ ืืฃ ื‘ืื ืœื ื™ืžืกืจื• ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื”ื ื›ืจื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืชื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื ื”ืจื’ ืขื ื”ืื—ืจื™ื ืืš ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืจืฉื•ืช ืœื‘ืจืจ ืžื™ ื”ื•ื ื–ื” ืฉื™ืฆื ืœื”ืจื™ื’ื”. ืืš ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื ื›ืจื™ื ืžื‘ืงืฉื™ื ืื™ืฉ ืคืจื˜ื™ ืื–ื™ ืžืขื™ืงืจื ื“ื“ื™ื ื ืžื•ืชืจ ืœืžืกื•ืจ ืื•ืชื• ืืžื ื ืขืค"ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ ืื™ื ื” ืžืžื™ื“ืช ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช ื›ื™ ืœืžืขืฉื” ืื ื• ืžื•ืกืจื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืœื”ืจื™ื’ื” ื•ื˜ื•ื‘ ืœื ื• ืœื”ื ื™ื— ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืžื™ื ืืฃ ืฉืขืœ ืคื™ ื“ืจืš ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ืžืŸ ื”ืกืชื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื›ื•ืœื ื ื”ืจื’ื™ื.
[18]ย If one were to beย ืžื“ื™ื™ืงย in the language used by theย ืจืž"ืย in formulating his ruling, he will notice that theย ืจืž"ืย permits one to beย ืžืฉื ื”ย (alter) for the sake of peace, but he never allows one to beย ืžืฉืงืจย (lie) for the sake of peace. Thisย ืจืž"ืย would be proof to the opinion of the Lubavitcher Rebbe Ztzโ€l (ืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ืงื•ื“ืฉ ืฉื‘ืช ืค'ืขืงื‘ ืชืฉืž"ื ืื•ืช ื›"ื– ืขื™"ืฉ) who explains that one may beย ืžืฉื ื”ย (alter) for the sake of peace, but not beย ืžืฉืงืจย (lie) for the sake of peace.
[19]ย ื”ืจ'ื–ื™ื• ืฉื ื”ืขืจื” 64, "ืื‘ืœ ืงืจื•ื‘ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืคื” ืœืงื”ื™ืœืช ืคืจืื’ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ..."
[20]ย ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื–ื”ื• ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื‘ืžืฉ"ื› ื‘ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืขื ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื ื“ืคืก ื‘ื“ืคื•ืก ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฉื•"ืช ื”ืจืž"ื,ย ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืชื ืฆืœื•ืช ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ืจื“ื™ืคื•ืช ืฉืœื•ื ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ืื—ื“, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฉื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื•ื ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ืื—ื“ ื•ืœื ื™ืฆื ืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ืจืž"ื.
ื”ืจ'ืืฉืจ ื–ื™ื• ืžื™ืœืช ืืœื• ืžืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื•ื”ืขื™ืจ ื‘ืฉื•ืœื™ ื”ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ, ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ื ื•ืกืฃ ืคื” 'ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ืื—ื“'. ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ ื ื›ืชื‘ ืืœ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืื—ื“.
[21]ย ืื•ืœื ื”ืจ'ื–ื™ื• ืœื ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืฉืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื–ื• ืื™ื ื• ืœื”ืจืž"ื
[22]ย ื–ื™ื• ื‘ื”ืžื‘ื•ื ืœืฉื•"ืช ื”ืจืž"ื ืขืž' 30
[23]ย Matarah ha-Mekadeshet et ha-Emtzaโ€™imย (Jerusalem, 2000), p. 176 (emphasis added here and in subsequent quotations).
[24]ย Emek Berakhah, p. 41.
[25]ย Shirat David, Bereshit-Shemot, p. 132.
[26]ย Hashukei Hemed, Sukkah, pp. 443-444.
[27]ย Ibid., p. 444.
[28]ย JT Terumotย 8:4.
[29]ย Sheโ€™erit Yisrael, Orah Hayyimย no. 13.
[30]ย Sefer ha-Zikaron le-Maran Baโ€™al โ€œPahad Yitzhakโ€, p. 334.
[31]ย Hashukei Hemed, Makotย 11a.
[32]ย One should not assume that this question, or any of the other strange questions in R. Zilbersteinโ€™s works, are actual cases. I think it is obvious that he makes them up in order to have a springboard to discuss various halakhic issues.
[33]ย Hafetz Hayyim, Kelalย 4,ย Beโ€™er Mayim Hayyim, no. 43.
โ†ง

Review of Dovid Bashevkin's Sefer Berogez Racheim Tizkor

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By Rabbi Yitzchok Oratz

Rabbi Yitzchok Oratz, aย musmachย of Beth Medrash Govoha, is the Rabbi and Director of the
Monmouth Torah Links community in Marlboro, NJ.

ืื”ืจืŸ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ืœื•ื™ ืืจืฅ


ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื™ื“ืข ื™ืฆืจื ื•:
ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื•ื”ืืจื•ืช, ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื•ืžืจืื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช, ืขืœย ืขื ื™ื ื™ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”, ื—ื˜ื, ื•ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”.
ืžื™ื•ืกื“ ืขืœ ืกืคืจ "ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื›ื•ืจ"ืœื”ืจื‘ ื“ื•ื“ ืืœื™ืงื™ื ื‘ืฉื‘ืงื™ืŸ.

Introduction

In wrath, remember mercy. For He knows our nature . . .

God knows the nature of every generation,ย Rabbi Dovid Bashevkin has written aย Seferย uniquely appropriate for the nature of ours[1].ย 

Take a trip to your local Jewish bookseller during this time period, and you will find numerousย seforim, old[2]ย and new[3], on the themes of sin and repentance. Although theyย certainly varyย in style and quality, a commonย denominatorย among many is the heavy reliance onย Rambam's Hilchos Teshuvaย andย Sha'arey Teshuvaย of Rabbeinu Yonah ofย ย Gerondi[4]. ย And this is to be expected. Timeless classics, these works of the greatย Rishonimย are unmatched in their systematic and detailed discussion of sin and punishment, free will[5]ย and repentance, and are aย prerequisiteย study for any serious discussion ofย Teshuva.ย 

But therein lays theย dilemma.ย 

For althoughย Rabbeinu Yonahย maps out the exalted levels ofย Teshuvaย that one shouldย certainly strive for, they seem not to be for the faint of heart.ย ย Is our generation really up to the task of embracingย the sorrow, suffering, and worry, the humbling and lowering oneself[6], without allowing for theย concomitant sense of despair[7]ย andย despondence[8]?ย 

And how many of us can honestly stand before the Creator, and proclaim that we will "neverย return" to our negative actions, to the extent that God Himself will testify that this is the case[9]? If confession without sincere commitment to change is worthless[10], does repeating last yearโ€™s failed commitments not require choosing between giving up and fooling ourselves?

This is whereย Bโ€™Rogezย ย Rachemย ย Tizkorย comes in.ย ย Based heavily on the thought of Izbica in general, andย Reb Tzadok ha-Kohen of Lublinย in particular, it discusses the value ofย spiritual struggle, the interplay between determinism and free will, theย redemptiveย potentialย of sin, and the status of those who have not yet arisen from their fall. ย 

In a refreshingly humble[11], almost apologetic,ย essayย at the Seforim blog, R' Bashevkin expresses hope that his work brings "theย much needed attention these thinkers deserve in contemporary times," while delivering a message ofย "comfort and optimism[12]," without being disloyal "to the type ofย avodas Hashemย . . .ย they hoped to engender[13]."ย I think he wasย successfulย on allย accounts.ย 

Overall, theย seferย is a good introduction to R' Tzadok for those who are not familiar with hisย thought, and offers many insightful and fascinating comments even for those who are. Some that I found particularly interesting includethe insight into why Rโ€™ Mesharshiya cursed Ravina that he should come to permit forbidden fats (Yevamosย 37a,ย Bโ€™Rogez Rachem Tizkorย p. 16), what important lesson can be learned from the Talmudic teaching that one who respondsย Amein Yehay Shemy Rabbahย with all his might is forgiven even if he has a trace of idolatry (Shabbosย 119b, p. 18), what benefit is there in requiring that anyone appointed to theย Sanhedrinย know how to purify aย sheretzย (Sanhedrinย 17a, p. 19), why does the Talmud expound so harshly on the sins of Achan (Sanhedrinย 44a, p. 36), a new understanding of why one may lie for the sake of peace (Yevamosย 65b, p. 84), and what possibly could be negative about being attached to Torah (p. 23).

In the aforementioned essay, the author hopes that, in keeping with its theme, the work is read with a โ€œmeasure of mercy.โ€ He has nothing to worry about. My main critiques are that some of the discussion of the more controversial statements of Izbica required more elaboration[14], the lack thereof leads to a seeming conflating of two similar, yet far from identical, concepts, and more contrasting and supporting texts (both from within Izbica and Rโ€™ Tzadokโ€™s thought and without) would have made for a stronger case and deeper understanding.

My hope is to fill in these gaps in some small measure. Hopefully it will further enlighten those whose appetite was whet by this fine work.ย ย 

ื•ืขืชื” ื‘ืืชื™ ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ื›ื“ืจื›ื• ืฉืœ ืชื•ืจื”, ื•ืืช ื•ื”ื‘ ื‘ืกื•ืคื”.

"ื”ื›ืœ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืžื™ื ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ืจืืช ืฉืžื™ื!"
ื) ื‘ืกื™'ื’'ืฉื•"ื˜ ื‘ื˜ื•ื˜ื•"ื“ ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ืžื” ืฉื ืจืื” ืฉื”ื•ื ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉ ื ื•ืขื–[15]ย ืžื‘ื™ืช ืžื“ืจืฉื• ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฆ'ื, ื“ื”ื›ืœ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ย ย ืฉืžื™ืย ืืคื™ืœื•ย ื™ืจืืช ืฉืžื™ื[16],ย ื•ื“ื™ืฉ ืžื•ืฉื’ ืฉืœ ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืย ืœืžืขืœื” ืžื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ื”ืื“ื[17].

ื•ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ ืืขื™ืจ, ื“ื›ื ืจืื” ืขื™ืจื‘ื‘ ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืฉื•ื™ื. ื“ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื“ื”ื›ืœ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ย ย ืฉืžื™ื ืืคื™ืœื• ื™ืจืืช ืฉืžื™ื, ื“ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื“ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื™'ื”ื•ื” ื•ื™ื”ื™'ื”ื•ื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ืจืฆื•ื ื• ื™ืชื‘"ืฉ, ื›ืœ ืžืขืฉื™ ื”ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช, ื“ื•ื›ื™ ื™ืขืฉื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืœื ื‘ืจืฉื•ืช ืงื•ื ื• ื•ื‘ืœื ื—ืคืฆื•? ื›ืœ ืืฉืจ ื—ืคืฅ ื”'ืขืฉื” ื‘ืฉืžื™ื ื•ื‘ืืจืฅ! ื•ื›ืฉืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื“ืจืš ื–ื”, ืื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื ื—ื™ืœื•ืง ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืŸ ืœืžืขืœื” ืžื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื ื• ื•ืืœื• ืฉืชื•ืš ืฉื“ื” ื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื ื•. "ื›ืœย ืžื” ืฉื—ื˜ื ื”ื™'ื’ื ื›ืŸ ื‘ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ืชื‘ืจืš" (ืฆื“ืงืช ื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ืื•ืช ืž'). "ื•ืœืขืชื™ื“ ื™ืชื‘ืจืจ ื›ืŸ ืขืœย ื›ืœย ื—ื˜ืื™ ื‘ื ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื›ื•'ืฉื™ืชื‘ืจืจ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื“ืจ ืžืืžื™ืชื•ืช ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”'ื™ืชื‘ืจืš ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ื›ืŸ ื•ืื ื›ืŸ ื’ื ื‘ื–ื” ืขืฉื• ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”'ื™ืชื‘ืจืš" (ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื—ืจื•ืฅ ืื•ืช ื“').ย ื”ื›ืœ ื”ื•ื ืžืืชื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืš.

ื•ื”ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ ื”ื•ื ื›ืฉืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืชื•ืš ืขื•ืœื ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”[18], ื“ืข"ืค ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื”ื•ื ื“"ื ื“ืข ื‘ืœื ืกืคืง ืฉืžืขืฉื” ื”ืื“ื ื‘ื™ื“ ื”ืื“ื"ื•"ืขื•ืฉื” ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื ื—ืคืฅ ื•ืื™ืŸ ืžื™ ืฉื™ืขื›ื‘ ื‘ื™ื“ื• ืžืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ืื• ื”ืจืข,"ื•ืžืฉื•"ื” "ื“ื ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืœืคื™ ืžืขืฉื™ื•" (ืจืžื‘"ื ืคืจืง ื”'ืžื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”), ื•ืืขืค"ื› ื—ื™ื“ืฉ ื”ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฆ'ืย ย ื“"ืœืคืขืžื™ืย ืืฉืจ ื™ืฆืจ ื”ืื“ื ืžืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœื™ื• ืขื“ ืฉืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื–ื•ื– ื‘ืฉื•ื ืื•ืคืŸ ื•ืื– ื‘ืจื•ืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื›ื™ ืžื”'ื”ื•ื" (ืžื™ ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื— ืคืจืฉืช ื›ื™ ืชืฆื ื›"ื:ื™"ื), ื•"ืคืขืžื™ืย ื™ืฉ ืื“ื ืขื•ืžื“ ื‘ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืขื“ ืฉืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื• ืฉืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื" (ืฆื“ืงืช ื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ืื•ืช ืž"ื’)[19].

ื”ืจื™ ื“ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื™ ืขื ื™ื ื™ื ื ืคืจื“ื™ื, ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ื ื ืคืœืื™ื, ื•ืฉื ื™ื”ื ืžื‘ื™ืช ืžื“ืจืฉื• ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฆ'ื.

ื‘) ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืืžืช, ื›ื“ ื ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ื‘ื–ื”,ย ย ื ืžืฆืย ย ื”ืจื‘ื”ย ย ืกื™ื™ืขืชื ืœืฉื ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื—ื–"ืœ ื•ื‘ืชื•ืจืชืŸ ืฉืœ ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืืฃ ืžืืœื• ื”ืจื—ื•ืงื™ื ืžืชื•ืจืช ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฅ, ื“ื‘ืขื™ืงืจื™ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื•ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืชื™ื” ืชื•ืจื” ืื—ืช ื”ื™ื ืœื›ื[20].

"ืฉืื™ืŸ ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื›ืœืœ ืœืœื ื”ืฉื ื™ืชื‘ืจืš ื•ื›ื•'ื•ืœื ืฉื™ืš ื›ืœืœ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืขืœ ืจืฆื•ื ื•, ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื ืžื•ืฉื’ ืœืœื ืจืฆื•ื ื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืš.ย ื•ืืฃ ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืื“ื ื—ื•ื˜ื, ืื™ื ื• ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ืชื‘ืจืš, ืืœื ื–ื” ื’ื•ืคื ืจืฆื•ื ื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืš, ื•ืจืง ื”ืื“ืื˜ื•ืขื” ื•ืกื•ื‘ืจืฉืขื•ืฉื” ื ื’ื“ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื, ื•ืขืœ ื–ื” ื™ืขื ืฉ ืขืœ ืฉืกื•ื‘ืจ ืฉืขื•ืฉื” ื ื’ื“ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ืชื‘ืจืš. ื•ืื™ืชื ื‘ื—ื–"ืœืฉื‘ืคืจืฉืช ื”ืื–ื™ื ื• ืžื•ืจืžื– ื›ืœ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื” ื›ื•ืœื”, ื•ื›ืœ ืžืขืฉื™ ื”ืื“ื ืœืขื•ืœื ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื™ืฆืจ ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื‘ืจื•ืš ื”ื•ื ื‘ืขืช ื‘ืจื™ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื, ื•ื”ืื™ืš ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื™ืขื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื, ื•ื”ืจื™ ื”ื›ืœ ื›ื‘ืจ ื ื‘ืจื ื•ื ื•ืฆืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื•."

ื”ืจื•ืื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืืœื• ื‘ื•ื“ืื™ ื™ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื“ืชื•ืจืช ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฅย ย ื™ืฉ ื›ืืŸ.

ื•ืื™ื ื• ื›ืŸ. ืืœื ืžื‘ื™ืช ืžื“ืจืฉื• ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžื•ืกืจ, ืžืคื™ ื”ืžืฉื’ื™ื— ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื ื”ืจื”"ื’ ืจ'ื™ื—ื–ืงืืœ ืœื•ื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ื–"ืœย ย ื™ืฆื ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื (ืื•ืจ ื™ื—ื–ืงืืœ, ืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ืืœื•ืœ ืขืžื•ื“ ืก"ื– - ืก"ื—). ื•ืœื”ืคืชืขืชื™ ืžืฆืืชื™ย ย ืฉื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื”ื•ื‘ืื•ย ย ื’ื ื‘ืกืคืจ ืžืžื—ื‘ืจ ืžืคื•ืจืกื ืฉืœ ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืจืกืœื‘[21]. ื”ืจื™ ื“ืชื•ืจืช ื‘ืจืกืœื‘, ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฅ, ื•ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžื•ืกืจ, ื›ื•ืœื ืžืกื›ื™ืžื™ื ืœืขืฆื ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ย ื“ื”ื›ืœย ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืžื™ื, ืœืœื ื™ื•ืฆื ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœ.

ื•ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื”ื•ื™ ื‘ืžื“ืจืฉ (ื‘ืžื“ื‘ืจ ืจื‘ื”, ืคืจืฉืช ื ืฉื, ืคืจืฉื” "ื™ื’ ืกื™'ื™"ื—):ย 

"ืืข"ืค ืฉืื™ืจืข ืœืฉื‘ื˜ื™ื ืฉื‘ื ืœื™ื“ื™ื”ื ืžื›ื™ืจืช ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืืช ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื ืœื™ื“ื ืื•ืชื• ื”ืžืขืฉื”ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ืืœื ื"ื› ื”ื™ื• ืจืฉืขื™ื ื‘ืžืขืฉื” ืื—ืจื™ื ืœืื• ืืœื ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ื’ืžื•ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื•ืœื ื‘ื ืœื™ื“ื ื—ื˜ื ืžืขื•ืœื ื•ื›ื•'ืืœื ื–ื”ย ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ื•ืžืชื•ืš ื’ื ื•ืชื ืกื™ืคืจ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ ืฉื‘ื—ื ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื“ื ืขื•ืŸ ืืœื ื–ื” ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ื•ืœืคื™ ืฉืžื›ื™ืจืช ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ื™ื” ืœื•ืฉื”ื™ื ื’ืจืžื” ืœื• ืœืžืœื•ืš ื•ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ื™ืชื” ืœืื—ื™ื• ื•ืœื›ืœ ื‘ื™ืช ืื‘ื™ื• ืฉื›ืœื›ืœื ื‘ืœื—ื ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืจืขื‘ื•ืŸ ืœื›ืš ื ืžื›ืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ืย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ืฉืžื’ืœื’ืœื™ืŸ ื–ื›ื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื–ื›ืื™."

ื•ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืชืžื•ื”, ื“ืืฃ ื“ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื™ื” ืœื˜ื•ื‘ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฆ"ืข ืžื” ื“ื”"ื–ื›ื•ืช"ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœื”ื ื“ื”ื ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื‘ืžื“ืจืฉ ื“ืžื›ื™ืจืช ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื”ื™ื” "ืขื•ืŸ."

ืืœื ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื”ื•ื ื“ื›ืœ ืขื ื™ืŸ ืžื›ื™ืจืช ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื”ื™'ืขืฆื” ืขืžื•ืงื” ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื• ืฆื“ื™ืง ื”ืงื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ[22]ย ื•ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ื™ืจื“ื• ื‘ื "ื™ ืœืžืฆืจื™ื ื“ืขืฆืช ื”'ื”ื™ื ืชืงื•ื. ื”ืจื™ ื“ื‘ืžื›ื™ืจืช ื™ื•ืกืฃ, ืืฃ ื“ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœื”ื ืœืขื•ืŸ, ืืค"ื” ื”ื™ื• ื”ืฉื‘ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœื•ื—ื ื“ืจื—ืžื ื ืœืงื™ื™ื ื’ื–ื™ืจื•ืชื™ื•. ื•ืžืขืฉื” ืื‘ื•ืช ืกื™ืžืŸ ืœื‘ื ื™ื[23], ื“ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืื™ืจืข ื‘ื”ืขื•ืœื, ื”ื›ืœ ื”ื•ื ืœืงื™ื™ื ืจืฆื•ื ื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืš[24], ื•ื–ื”ื• ืืฃ ื‘ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืื“ื ืขื•ืฉื”[25], ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืื™ืŸ ื”ืชื•ืขืœืช ื•ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ืฉื™ืฆื ืžืžืขืฉื™ ืื“ื ืžืชื™ื—ื—ืกื™ื ืœื•[26], ื•ืื“ืจื‘ื” ื ืขื ืฉ ืขืœื™ื”ื ืืฃ ืฉืžืขืฉื™ื• ื”ื™ื• "ื’ื•ืคื ืจืฆื•ื ื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืš[27]."ืื‘ืœ ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื›ืฉืœื ืขืฉื” ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”, ืื‘ืœ ืืฆืœ ืฉื‘ื˜ื™ื ืฉืืžืจื• "ืื‘ืœ ืืฉืžื™ื ืื ื—ื ื• ืขืœ ืื—ื™ื ื•" (ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ืคืจืง ืž"ื‘ ืคืกื•ืง ื›"ื) ืฉื”ื•ื ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืขืœ ืžืขืฉื™ื”ื (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉืขืจื™ ืื”ืจืŸ ื‘ืฉื ื”ื–ื•ื”ืจ ื•ืขื•ื“) ื ืขืฉื” ืœื”ื ื–ื“ื•ื ื•ืช ื›ื–ื›ื™ื•ืช ืžืžืฉ ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉืœื ื”ื™'ืขื•ืŸ ื›ืœืœ, ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืงืฉ ืขื•ืŸ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืื™ื ื ื•, ื•ื›ืœ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ื”ื ืžืฉืš ืžืžืขืฉื™ื”ื ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœื”ื ื›ื–ื›ื•ืช ืžืžืฉ[28]ย (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ื‘ืก'ืชืงื ืช ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ืกื™'ื™'ืื•ืช ื˜).ย ย ื”ืจื™ ื“ืืฃ ืžืขืฉื™ ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื•ื™ ืงื™ื•ื ืจืฆื•ื ื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืš.

ื’) ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื”ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ (ื“"ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื—ื˜ื ื”ื™'ื’ื ื›ืŸ ื‘ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ืชื‘ืจืš"ื•"ืืฃ ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืื“ื ื—ื•ื˜ื ื•ื›ื•'ื–ื” ื’ื•ืคื ืจืฆื•ื ื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืšโ€). ื•ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ื”ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ืช, ื“ื”ื•ื ื“ืืฃ ื›ืฉืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ืขื•ืœื ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ืืค"ื” ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื™ืฉ ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื“ื™ืฉ ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื"ื ืฉืœื ื™ื›ืฉืœ ื‘ื”ืŸ, ื‘ื–ื” ื”ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื• ืืฉืจ ื“ื‘ืจื• ื‘ื–ื” ื‘"ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื‘ืจ"ื“ืฉืคื™ืจ ืžืฉืžืข ืžืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ืฉื™ื˜ืช ืจ'ืืœืขืื™ (ืงื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ืŸ ืž.) ื“ื™ืฉ ืขื ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื”.

ย ย ื•ื‘ืืžืช, ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ืฉ"ืก ื“ืžืฉืžืข ื›ืŸ. ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฆื“ืงืช ื”ืฆื“ื™ืง (ืื•ืช ืž"ื’) ื“ื”ื‘ื™ื ืžื’ืž'ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืœ"ื‘. "ืžืฉืœ ืœืื“ื ืื—ื“ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื‘ืŸ ื”ืจื—ื™ืฆื• ื•ืกื›ื• ื•ื”ืื›ื™ืœื• ื•ื”ืฉืงื”ื• ื•ืชืœื” ืœื• ื›ื™ืก ืขืœ ืฆื•ืืจื• ื•ื”ื•ืฉื™ื‘ื• ืขืœ ืคืชื— ืฉืœ ื–ื•ื ื•ืช ืžื” ื™ืขืฉื” ืื•ืชื• ื”ื‘ืŸ ืฉืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื,"ื•ื›ืŸ ืžื’ืž'ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ื "ื: "ื›ืœ ืฉืชื—ืœืชื” ื‘ืื•ื ืก ื•ืกื•ืฃ ื‘ืจืฆื•ืŸ ืืคื™'ื”ื™ื ืื•ืžืจืช ื”ื ื™ื—ื• ืœื• ืฉืืœืžืœื ืœื ื ื–ืงืง ืœื” ื”ื™ื ืฉื•ื›ืจืชื• ืžื•ืชืจืช ืž"ื˜ ื™ืฆืจ ืืœื‘ืฉื”""ื”ืจื™ ื“ื–ื” ืžื—ืฉื‘ ืื•ื ืก ื’ืžื•ืจ ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื” ืžื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ื™ืฆืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื›ื–ื” ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ื‘ืื“ื ืœื›ื•ืคื•.[29]"

ื•ืขื™ื™ื• ื‘ืก'ื™ื“ ืงื˜ื ื” (ืจื™ืฉ ื”ืœ'ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”) ื“ื”ืืจื™ืš ืœื—ื“ืฉ ื“ื™ืฉ ืขื ื™ืŸ "ืจื‘ ื•ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืœืžืื•ื“"ื‘ื•ื™ื“ื•ื™ ืคื” ืืฃ ื‘ืœื™ ื—ืจื˜ื”[30]ย ื•ื‘ืœื™ ืขื–ื™ื‘ืช ื”ื—ื˜ื[31], ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืžื™ื™ืจื™ ื‘ืžื™ ืฉ"ืื™ืŸ ืœื• ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื•ืžืžืฉืœื” ืขืœ ื—ื•ื–ืง ื›ื‘ื“ ืœื‘ื‘ื• ืœื”ื˜ื•ืชื” ื‘ืืžืช"ื•"ื”ืจื™ ื”ื•ื ื›ืžื• ืื ื•ืก ืžืŸ ื—ื•ื–ืง ื›ื‘ื“ ืœื‘ื‘ื•,"ื”ืจื™ ื“ื ืงื˜ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืคืฉื•ื˜ ืฉื™ืฉ ืžืฆื‘ื™ื ื•ื™ืฉ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื‘ืฉื•ื ืื•ืคืŸ ื"ื ืœื”ื ืœืฉื•ื‘ ืžื“ืจื›ื ื”ืจืขื”.ย 

ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืก'ืžื›ืชื‘ ืžืืœื™ื”ื• ื‘"ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”" (ื—"ื ืขืžื•ื“ ืงื™"ื’) ืฉื‘ื™ืืจ ื”ื’ืจื"ื ื“ืกืœืจ ื–ืฆ"ืœ ืœื ืจืง ื“ื™ืฉ ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืŸ ืœืžืขืœื” ืžื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื ื•, ืืœื ืจื•ื‘ ืžืขืฉื™ื ื• ื”ื•ื ืœืžืขืœื” ืื• ืœืžื˜ื” ืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ืœ ืื•"ื. ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื‘ื”ืขืจื” ืžื”ืจื‘ ืืจื™'ื›ืจืžืœ ื“ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจ'ืืœืขืื™ ื‘ืงื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ืŸ ืฉื. ื”ืจื™ ืœื ืจืง ื“ื›ืŸ ืก"ืœ ืœืจ'ืืœืขืื™ ืืœื ื ืงื˜ื™ื ืŸ ื›ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•[32].

ื•ื™ืฉ ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื ื—ืœย ื ื•ื‘ืขย ืžืงื•ืจย ื—ื›ืžื” ื›ื ืจืื” ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื“ืœื ื›ื–ื”. ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ ืžื•ื”ืจ"ืŸ (ืชื ื™ื ื, ืชื•ืจื” ืง"ื™) "ืฉืžืขืชื™, ืฉืื™ืฉ ืื—ื“ ืฉืืœ ืื•ืชื•: ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื•ื ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”? ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ื‘ืคืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช, ืฉื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ื™ื“ ื”ืื“ื ื‘ืคืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช. ืื ืจืฆื” ืขื•ืฉื”, ื•ืื ืื™ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื” ืื™ื ื• ืขื•ืฉื”. ื•ืจืฉืžืชื™ ื–ืืช, ื‘ื™ ื”ื•ื ื ืฆืจืš ืžืื“, ื›ื™ ื›ืžื” ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื ื‘ื•ื›ื™ื ื‘ื–ื” ืžืื“, ืžื—ืžืช ืฉื”ื ืžืจื’ืœื™ื ื‘ืžืขืฉื™ื”ื ื•ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื”ื ืžื ืขื•ืจื™ื”ื ืžืื“, ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื ื“ืžื” ืœื”ื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื”ื ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”, ื—ืก ื•ืฉืœื•ื, ื•ืื™ื ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืžืขืฉื™ื”ื. ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืืžืช ืื™ื ื• ื›ืŸ, ื›ื™ ื‘ื•ื“ืื™ ื™ืฉ ืœื›ืœ ืื“ื ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ืชืžื™ื“ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื•ื ืจื•ืฆื” ืขื•ืฉื”. ื•ื”ื‘ืŸ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืื“[33]."

ื“) ืื‘ืœ ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื‘ืฆื“ืงืช ื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ืฉืกื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืกื•ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ "ืื‘ืœ ื”ืื“ื ืขืฆืžื• ืื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืขื™ื“ ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื• ื‘ื–ื” ื›ื™ ืื•ืœื™ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื›ื— ืœื›ื•ืฃ ื”ื™ืฆืจ."ย ย ื•ื‘ืก'ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื›ืจ ืฉื ื”ื‘ื™ื ืžืขื•ื“ ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื”ืŸ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื, ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื ืคืœื ื‘ื–ื” ืžื‘ืขืœ ืคื—ื“ ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื•ื™ืกื•ื“ ื–ื” ืฉื™ื™ืš ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื”ืขื ื™ื ื™ื, ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ื“ื”ื›ืœ ื”ื•ื ืžื”ืฉื™"ืช ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื” ื“ื™ืฉ ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืœืžืขืœื” ืžื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”, ื‘ื›ื•ืœื ืืกื•ืจ ืœื ื• ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืœื”ื›ื—ื™ืฉ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื‘ืฉื•ื ืคื ื™ื ื•ืื•ืคืŸ ื•ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืื ื• ืœื”ืœื—ื ื‘ื™ืฆืจื™ื ื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื ื™ืžื™ ื ืคืฉื™ื ื•[34].

ื•ืื ื›ื ื™ื ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื–ื”[35], ื“ืžืฆื“ ืื—ื“ ืชื•ืจืช ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฅย ย ื™ืฉ ืœื• ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื ืืžื ื™ื ื•ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื—ื–"ืœ ื•ื”ืจื‘ื” ืก"ืœ ื›ืžื•ืชื•, ื•ืžืฆื“ ืฉื ื™ ื“ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืืกื•ืจ ืœื ื• ืœื”ื›ื—ื™ืฉ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื›ืœืœ ื•ื›ืœืœ, ื™ืฉ ื›ืืŸ ืชืžื™ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” -- ื"ื› ืžื” ื›ืœ ื”ืจืขืฉ ื”ื–ื” ืขืœ ืชื•ืจืชื•, ืžื” ื—ืจื™ ื”ืืฃ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื–ื” ื“ืœื ืจืฆื• ืœื”ื“ืคื™ืก ืกืคืจื™ื• ื•ืืฃ ืฉืจืคื• ืกืคืจื™ื• ื‘ืืฉ ืจ"ืœ[36]?

ื•ื›ื“ ื ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ื‘ื–ื”, ื ืจืื” ื“ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ืจืขืฉ ืขืœ ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื• ื”ื™'ืขืœ ืžื” ื“ื’ืœื ืจื–ื™ืŸ ืžืขืœืžื ื“ืืชื›ืกื™ื, ืจื–ื™ืŸ ืขื™ืœืื™ืŸ ื•ื˜ืžื™ืจื™ืŸ ืฉื›ื™ืกื” ืขืชื™ืง ื™ื•ืžื™ืŸ ื•ืœื ืื™ืชื’ืœืื• ืžื›ืžื” ื“ืจื™ืŸ. ื•ื‘ื–ื” ื”ื ื™ื— ืžืงื•ื ืœื˜ืขื•ืช ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• (ื›ืืฉืจ ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™'ืจ"ืœ) ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฉ ื—ื•ืžืจ ื”ื—ื˜ื. ื•ื”ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ ื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ื–ื” ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ืจ'ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžืื™ืจ ืžืจื’ื ืฉื˜ืจืŸ ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื ืžื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื“"ืžื“ืจื’ื” ื–ื• ื•ื›ื•'ืื™ืŸ ืžื’ืœื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื” ืืœื ืœืฆื ื•ืขื™ื, ื•ืžื›ืœ ืฉื›ืŸ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื“ืจื•ืฉ ื‘ื” ื‘ืงื•ืœ ืจืขืฉ ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื›ื™ ืื ื‘ื“ื•ืงื ื‘ืกื•ื“ ื•ื‘ื”ืขืœื ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื“ื—ืœื™ืœื” ืœืื“ื ืฉื™ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืงื•ื“ื ื”ื—ื˜ื ื“ื”ื›ืœ ืžืจืฆื•ื ื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืš ื•ื›ื™ื•ืฆื ื‘ืืœื• ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืคื’ื•ืœ, ื“ื‘ื–ื” ืขืœื•ืœ ื”ื•ื ืœื”ืชื™ืจ ืžื” ืฉืืกืจื” ืชื•ืจื” ื•ื›ื•'ื•ื”ืจื™ ื”ื•ื ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืื—ื˜ื ื•ืืฉื•ื‘ ืื™ืŸ ืžืกืคื™ืงื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ื“ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”, ื•ื“ื™ื™ืงื ืื—ืจ ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื ื›ืฉืœ ืจื—"ืœ ื‘ื—ื˜ื, ืื– ื™ืฉื™ื‘ ืืœ ืœื‘ื• ืœืฉื•ื‘ ืืœ ื”'ื‘ื›ืœ ืœื‘ื• ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื ืคืฉื•, ื•ืœื ื™ืขืœื” ืขืœ ื“ืขืชื• ื“ืื—ืจ ืฉื ืชืจื—ืง ื”ื ื” ืžื›ืืŸ ื•ืื™ืœืš ื”ืจื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืจื•ื—ืง ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื ื™ื–ื›ื” ืœืจืื•ืช ืื•ืจ ื”ืฉืžืฉ, ื“ืื™ื ื• ื›ืŸ, ื“ื•ื“ืื™ ื‘ืคื ื™ืžื™ื•ืช ื‘ื“ืจืš ื”ืขืœืžื” ื”ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื” ื›ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื™"ืช ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืœื, ืืœื ื“ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืืœืงื™ื ื”ืกืชืจ ื“ื‘ืจ."

ื•ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ื“ื•ืจืฉื™ืŸ ืกืชืจื™ ืชื•ืจื”, ืฉืคื•ื ื™ ื˜ืžื•ื ื™ ื—ื•ืœ ื“ืชื•ืจืช ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฅ, ื‘ืจื‘ื™ื, ื‘ืงื•ืœื™ ืงื•ืœื•ืช ื•ื‘ืจืขืฉ ื’ื“ื•ืœ. ื•ืืคืฉืจ ื“ื›ืŸ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช. ื“ื‘ื“ื•ืจ ื—ืœืฉ, ื•ื“ื•ืจ ืฉืจื‘ื™ื ืžืฉืชื•ืงืงื™ื ืœื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ ื‘ื—ื•ืฉ ื“"ืงืจื‘ืช ืืœืงื™ื ืœื™ ื˜ื•ื‘,"ื™ืฉ ืฆื•ืจืš ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืœื“ืžื•ืช ืœืฉื›ื™ื ื” ื•ืœื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ืจื•ื— ืฉืคืœื™ื ื•ืœื‘ ื ื“ื›ืื™ื[37], ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื–ื›ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื—ื•ื˜ื (ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืขืœ ื”ื—ื˜ื), ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืื ื”ื•ื ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ื”ื•ืย ย ื”ื—ื•ื˜ื[38], ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ืืžืช ื™ืฉ ื ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื”ื ืœืžืขืœื” ืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื ื•, ื•ืฉื”ื›ืœ ื”ื•ื ืขืฆืช ื”', ื•ืืœ ืœื ื• ืœื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ืขื•ืžืง ื”ื™ืื•ืฉ ื•ื“ื›ืื•ืŸ[39]. ื•ืขื›"ื– ืฆื•ืจืš ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื“ื‘ืขืฆื ืชื•ืงืฃ ื”ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืœืœื—ื•ื ื‘ื™ืฆืจ ื‘ื›ืœ ื›ื—ื ื•, ื•ืื™ืŸ ืœื ื• ืœื”ืชื™ืืฉ ืžืœื”ืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœื™ื• ื‘ื˜ืขื ืช ืฉืื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ื•.

ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืฉื‘ืขืœื™ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื
ื”) ื•ื›ืฉื ืฉื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœืœื—ื•ื ื‘ื™ืฆื”"ืจ ื•ื—ืœื™ืœื” ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืงื•ื“ื ื”ื—ื˜ื ื“ื”ื—ื˜ื ื”ื•ื ืจืฆื•ื ื•, ื›ืš ืืกื•ืจ ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ. ื•ืžืคื ื™ ื–ื” ื™ืคื” ื”ื‘ื™ื (ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืž"ื˜) ืœืชืžื•ื” ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื›ืœื™ ื™ืงืจ (ื—ืงืช ื™"ื˜:ื›"ื) ื“ื‘ืขืœ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืžื•ืชืจ ื•ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ืคืœ ืžืชื—ืœื”, ื•ืืฃ ืœื”ืชื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืื•ืชื• ืืฉื” ืืฉืจ ื—ื˜ื, ื•ืื ื™ืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื™ืฆืจื• ื‘ื–ื” ื ื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ืขืœ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื’ืžื•ืจื”. ื•ื™ืคื” ื›ืชื‘ ืœืชืžื•ื” ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•.

ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ื‘ื–ื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื™ ื”ืฉืœื•ื— (ื—"ื‘ ืคืจืฉืช ื™ืชืจื• ืขื”"ืค ืœื ืชืฉืชื—ื•ื•ื” ืœื”ื ื•ืœื ืชืขื‘ื“ื) "ื•ืœื ืชืขื‘ื“ืย ืฉืœื ืชืขืฉื” ืžื”ื ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืœื”ืฉ"ื™ ื‘ื”ื›ื ื™ืกืš ืœื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื“ื™ ืฉืชืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื™ืฆืจืšย ื•ื›ื•'ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืื ืžื›ื•ื™ืŸ ืฉืขื™"ื– ื™ืชื’ื‘ืจ ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืฉืžื™ื ื‘ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจื• ืขืœ ื”ื™ืฆืจ."ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืจืžื‘"ื ืค"ื‘ ืžื”ืœ'ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”"ื“ "ื•ืžืชืจื—ืง ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืŸ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื—ื˜ื ื‘ื•."ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฆื“ืงืช ื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ืื•ืช ืข"ื’,ย ื•ื‘ืก'ืžื’ื“ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื (ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืœ""ื“ ืข"ื‘ ื•ื‘ืžื™ืœื•ืื™ื ืฉื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืกืคืจ) ื”ื‘ื™ื ืžื›ืžื” ืกืคืจื™ื ื“ื›ืชื‘ื• ื›ืขื™ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื›ืœื™ ื™ืงืจ, ื•ื’ื ืืœื• ื”ื—ื•ืœืงื™ืŸ ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื‘ืฉื ืœืงื˜ ื™ื•ืฉืจ (ืข'ืงืœ:ื•) "ืฉืื—ื“ ืจืฆื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ื“ืœืขื™ืœ ื•ืขืฉื” ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืฉื ื™ืช,"ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืก'ืฉืขืจื™ื ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื”ืœื›ื” (ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืฉื) ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืžื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื“ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื“ืœื ื›ื”ื›ืœื™ ื™ืงืจ, ื•ื›ืชื‘ ื“ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื‘ื–ื” ืชืžื•ื”ื™ืŸ[40]ย )ืื‘ืœ ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ ื”ื•ื‘ื ื‘ืขืจืœ"ื  ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ื›"ื‘. ื™ืฉ ืจืื™'ืœืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ื›ืœื™ ื™ืงืจ, ื•ืฆ"ืข(.

ื—ื“ืฉ ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื›ืงื“ื
ื•) ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืก"ื˜ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ื ืคืœื (ืžืจ'ืฉืžื—ื” ื•ื•ืœื™ื’ ื ืจ"ื•) ื“ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื‘ืžื“ืจืฉ ืื™ื›ื” (ื”':ื›"ื) "ื—ื“ืฉ ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื›ืงื“ื ื›ืื“ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื›ืžื“"ื (ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื’') ื•ื™ื’ืจืฉ ืืช ื”ืื“ื ื•ื™ืฉื›ืŸ ืžืงื“ื ืœื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸ"ื“ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื”ื•ื ื“ื•ืงื ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื—ื˜ื, ื“ื‘ื–ื” ืžื™ื™ืจื™ ื”ืคืกื•ืง. ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ืžื–ืžืŸ ืืžืจืชื™ ื›ืŸ ืœืขืฆืžื™ ื•ืœืื—ืจื™ื, ื•ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื‘ื—ื“ื•ืฉื™ ืจื“"ืœ ืฉื "ืฉืื—ืจ ืฉื ืชื’ืจืฉ ืœืงื“ื ืขืฉื” ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื•ื ืชืงื‘ืœ ื‘ืจืฆื•ืŸ."

ื•ื‘ื–ื” ืืžืจืชื™ ื“ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ืžืงื•ืฉื™ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจื™ื˜ื‘"ื. ื“ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช (ื—.') ื“ืื—ื“ ืžื‘ืจื›ืช ื—ืชื ื™ื ื”ื•ื "ืฉืžื— ืชืฉืžื— ืจื™ืขื™ื ื”ืื”ื•ื‘ื™ื ื›ืฉืžื—ืš ื™ืฆื™ืจืš ื‘ื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸย ืžืงื“ืย ื‘ืจื•ืš ืืชื” ื”'ืžืฉืžื— ื—ืชืŸ ื•ื›ืœื”."ย ย ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืจืฉ"ื™ ืฉื "ื‘ื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸ ืžืงื“ื ื“ื›ืชื™ื‘ ื•ื™ื˜ืข ื’ืŸ ื‘ืขื“ืŸ ืžืงื“ื ื•ื™ืฉื ืฉื ื•ื’ื•.'"

ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื‘"ื ืฉื ื“ื›ืชื‘ ื•ื–"ืœ "ื’ื™ืจืกืช ืจืฉ"ื™ ื–"ืœ ื›ืฉืžื—ืš ื™ืฆื™ืจืš ื‘ื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸ ืžืงื“ื ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื’ื™ืจืกื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืกืคืจื™ื ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ ืื•ืžืจ ื•ื™ื˜ืข ื”'ืืœื”ื™ืย ื’ืŸ ื‘ืขื“ืŸ ืžืงื“ืย ื•ื™ืฉื ืฉื ืืช ื”ืื“ื ื•ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื–"ืœ ื’ื•ืจืกย ืžืงื“ื ื‘ื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸย ื•ืื™ืŸ ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ืžืชื•ืงืŸ ื›ืจืื•ื™,ย ื›ื™ ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื ืืžืจ ืขืœ ื”ืื“ื ื›ืฉื ืชื’ืจืฉ ืžื’"ืข ื•ื™ืฉื›ืŸืžืงื“ื ืœื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸย ื•ืืข"ืค ืฉืฉื ืืžืจ ืœื’ืŸ ื•ื›ืืŸ ืืžืจ ื‘ื’ืŸ ืฉืžื ื™ื‘ื ืœื˜ืขื•ืช ืื“ื ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ื•ื’ื ื‘ืœืฉื•ืŸ[41].

ื•ืœืคื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื"ืฉ. ื“ื–ื”ื• ื’ื•ืคื ืžื” ืžื‘ืจื›ื™ืŸ ืœื”ื—ืชืŸ ื•ื›ืœื”, ืฉื”ืงื‘"ื” ื™ื ื”ื’ ืขืžื”ื ื‘ืจื—ืžื™ื ื›ืืฉืจ ืขืฉื” ืœืื“ื ื•ื—ื•ื” ืืฃ ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื ืคื™ืœื”, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ืคืœ ืžืื’ืจื ืจืžื ืฉื”ื™'ื™ื•ืฉื‘ ื‘ื’"ืข ื•ื”ื™ื• ืžืœืื›ื™ ื”ืฉืจืช ืฆื•ืœื™ืŸ ืœื• ื‘ืฉืจ ื•ืžืกื ื ื™ืŸ ืœื• ื™ื™ืŸ (ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ื "ื˜:) ืœื‘ื™ืจื ืขืžืงืชื ืฉืœ ื‘ื–ืขืช ืืคืš ืชืื›ืœ ืœื—ื (ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื’':ื™"ื˜), ืื‘ืœ ืœื ื’ื™ืจืฉ ืื•ืชื ืžื™ื“ ืืœื ื ืชืŸ ืœื”ื ืืช ื”ืฉื‘ืชย โ€œืื“ื ืฉืžืจ ืืช ื”ืฉื‘ืช ื‘ืชื—ืชื•ื ื™ื ื•ื”ื™ื” ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉื‘ืช ืžืฉืžืจื• ืžื›ืœ ืจืข ื•ืžื ื—ืžื• ืžื›ืœ ืฉืจืขืคื™ ืœื‘ื•โ€ย (ืคืจืงื™ ื“ืจ"ื ืคืจืง ื›')[42], ื•ื™ืขืฉ ืœื”ื ื›ืชื ื•ืช ืขื•ืจ, ื•ื›ืžืฉ"ื› ืจื‘ื™ื ื• ื‘ื—ื™ื™ ืฉื "ืข"ื“ ื”ืคืฉื˜ ืจืฆื” ืœื™ื—ืก ืคืขื•ืœืช ื”ื”ืœื‘ืฉื” ืืœื™ื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืš ืœื”ื•ืจื•ืช ืขืœ ืื”ื‘ืชื• ื•ื—ืžืœืชื• ืขืœ ื™ืฆื•ืจื™ื•, ืฉืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ืื• ืœื ื–ื– ืžื—ื‘ื‘ืŸ, ื•ื”ื•ื ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ื”ืฉืชื“ืœ ื‘ืชืงื•ื ื ื•ื‘ื’ืžื™ืœื•ืช ื—ืกื“ื™ื. ื•ื”ื ื” ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื—ืกื“ื™ ื”ืฉ"ื™, ื•ืขืœ ื–ื” ืืžืจ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘: (ื“ื ื™ืืœ ื˜, ื–) "ืœืš ื”'ื”ืฆื“ืงื” ื•ืœื ื• ื‘ื•ืฉืช ื”ืคื ื™ื". ื•ืœืคื™"ื– ื"ืฉ ื”ื’ืž'ื‘ืกื•ื˜ื” (ื™"ื“.) "ื“ืจืฉ ืจ'ืฉืžืœืื™ ืชื•ืจื” ืชื—ืœืชื” ื’ืžื™ืœื•ืช ื—ืกื“ื™ื ื•ืกื•ืคื” ื’ืžื™ืœื•ืช ื—ืกื“ื™ื ืชื—ื™ืœืชื” ื’ืžื™ืœื•ืช ื—ืกื“ื™ื ื“ื›ืชื™ื‘ ื•ื™ืขืฉ ื”'ืืœืงื™ื ืœืื“ื ื•ืœืืฉืชื• ื›ืชื ื•ืช ืขื•ืจ ื•ื™ืœื‘ื™ืฉื"ื•ืœื ืžื ื” ื”ื—ืกื“ ืฉืขืฉื” ืขืžื”ื ืœืคื ื™ ื”ื—ื˜ื ื‘ื”ื›ื ืช ื›ืœ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื”ื—ืชื•ื ื” (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืก"ื., ื‘"ืจ ืคืจืฉื” ื—'ืื•ืช ื™"ื’) ื“ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ื—ื‘ื” ื•ื”ื—ืกื“ ื”ื•ื ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื—ื˜ื, ื“ืืค"ื” ืœื ื–ื– ืžื—ื‘ื‘ืŸ, ื•ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ื‘ืจื›ื” ื”ื•ื™ ื“ื•ืงืย ย "ืžืงื“ื ืœื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸ"ื•ืœื "ื’ืŸ ื‘ืขื“ืŸ ืžืงื“ื[43]."

ืœื›ื•ืฃ ืืช ื™ืฆืจื• ืขื“ื™ืฃ
ื–) ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืข"ื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื (ืžื”ื’ืจ"ืจ ื’ืจื•ื–ื•ื‘ืกืงื™ ื–ืฆ"ืœ ื‘ืฉื ื”ื’ืจ"ื— ื—ืœื•ื™) ื“ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ืขื ืจืฉืขื™ื "ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืฉื ืืช ื”ื‘ืขืœื™ื ืœืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืžืฆื˜ืขืจ ืขืœ ืฉื™ืฉื ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื‘ืขืจื ื•ืœื ื›ื—ืชื•ืœ ื”ื ื”ื ื” ืžืžื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื• ืœื‘ืขืจ ื•ืœืื›ื•ืœ."ื•ื›ืชื‘ ื“ื–ื” ื"ืฉ ืœืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืจืžื‘"ืŸ ืขื”"ืช ืœื‘ืืจ ืœืžื” ื ืขื ืฉื• ื”ืžืฆืจื™ื™ื ืืข"ืค ืฉื”ื™ืชื” ื’ื–ื™ืจื” ืขืœ ื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ืง"ื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ "ืื ื“ื—ื” ืื•ืชื• ื”ืื™ืฉ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืŸ ื”ืจืื•ื™ ื•ื›ื•'ื”ืจื™ ื–ื” ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืฉื ืื” ื’ืžื•ืจื” ื•ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืขื•ื ื•.โ€

ื•ื™ืคื” ื›ืชื‘. ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ื•ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ, ื“ืœืคื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ืŸ ื‘ืคืจืฉืช ืœืš ืœืš (ื˜"ื•:ื™"ื“), ืืฃ ืื ืœื ื“ื—ื” ืื•ืชื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืŸ ื”ืจืื•ื™ ื›ืœืœ, ืืœื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื‘ืžื“ื” ื”ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช, ื›ืœ ืฉื ื”ื ื” ืžืขืฆื ื”ืฉื ืื” ื›ื—ืชื•ืœ ืœืขื›ื‘ืจ, ื”ืจื™ ื‘ื›ืœืœ ืฉื ืื” ื”ืืกื•ืจื” ื•ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืขื•ื ื•. ื“ื”ื ื‘ืจืžื‘"ืŸ ืฉื ืื™ืชื ื›ืžื” ื˜ืขืžื™ื ืœืžื” ื ืขื ืฉื• ื”ืžืฆืจื™ื™ื, ื“ื˜ืขื ืื—ื“ ื”ื•ื ืฉื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ืขืœ ื”ื’ื–ื™ืจื”, ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ื›ืชื‘ ื“"ืื ืฉืžืข ืื•ืชื” ื•ืจืฆื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื‘ื•ืจืื• ื›ื ื’ื–ืจ ืื™ืŸ ืขืœื™ื• ื—ื˜ื ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืœื• ื–ื›ื•ืช ื‘ื• ื•ื›ื•'ืื‘ืœ ืื ืฉืžืข ื”ืžืฆื•ื” ื•ื”ืจื’ ืื•ืชื• ืœืฉื ืื” ืื• ืœืฉืœื•ืœ ืื•ืชื•, ื™ืฉ ืขืœื™ื• ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืœื—ื˜ื ื ืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ, ื•ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ื”ื•ื ืœื•."ื•ื–ื”ื• ื˜ืขื ืฉื ื™ืช ื“ืฉื™ื™ืš ืืฃ ื›ืฉืœื ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ื›ืœื•ื. ื•ื“ื•ืŸ ืžื™ื ื” ื•ืื•ืงื™ ื‘ืืชืจื”.

ื•ืฉืžืขืชื™ ืœืคืจืฉ (ื›ืžื“ื•ืžื ื™ ื‘ืฉื ืื—ื“ ืžืื“ืžื•ืจ"ื™ ื’ืจ) "ื•ื™ืจื ืคื™ื ื—ืก ื•ื›ื•'ื•ื™ืงื ื•ื›ื•'ื•ื™ืงื— ืจืžื— ื‘ื™ื“ื•" -- ืื‘ืœ ื”ืงื ืื™ื ืชืžื™ื“ ื™ืฉ ืจืžื— ืžื–ื•ืžืŸ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื”ื . . .

ย "ืื™ืŸ ืฆื“ื™ืง ื‘ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจ ื™ืขืฉื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื•ืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื"
ื—) ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ื˜"ื• ื”ื‘ื™ื ืงื•ืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืชื•ืก' (ืฉื‘ืช ื "ื”: ื‘ื“"ื” ืืจื‘ืขื”) ืขืœ ื”ื’ืž'ื“ืืจื‘ืขื” ืžืชื• ื‘ืขื˜ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื ื—ืฉ, ื“ืฆ"ืข ืžื”ืคืกื•ืง ื‘ืงื”ืœืช (ื–':ื›') "ื›ื™ ืื“ื ืื™ืŸ ืฆื“ื™ืง ื‘ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจ ื™ืขืฉื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื•ืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื."ย ย ื•ื›ืชื‘ ืœืคืจืฉ ืข"ืค ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืฉืœื”"ืง (ืžืก'ืชืขื ื™ืช, ืคืจืง ืชื•ืจื” ื˜ื•ืจ, ืกื™'ืงืž"ื“ - ืงืž"ื”) "ืฉื˜ืžื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื ืคื™ืœื•ืช ื•ื”ืžื›ืฉื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ื”ื›ื— ื•ื”ื“ื—ื™ืคื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘."ื•ืขื ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ืืžืช ื‘ืจื™ื— ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืกืคืจ, ื“ื›ืœ ื”ื ืคื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื ื‘ืขืฆื ืœื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื•, ื•ื›ืœ ื”ื™ืจื™ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืขืฆืžื•ืชืŸ ื”ื ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืขืœื™'[44], ื•ืฉื”ื›ืœ ื”ื•ื ืขืฆืช ื”'ืœื˜ื•ื‘ ืœื ื• ืœื—ื™ืชื ื•.ย ย 

ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ื”ืฉืœ"ื” ื‘ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืคืกื•ืง ื“ื—ื•ืง. ื•ืฉืžืขืชื™ ืžืžื•"ืจ ื”ืžืฉื’ื™ื— ื”ืจื”"ื’ ืจ'ืžืชืชื™ื”ื• ืกืœื•ืžื•ืŸ ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื (ื‘ืฉื ืจื‘ื• ื”ืจื”"ื’ ืจ'ืืœื™'ืœืคื™ืืŸ ื–ืฆ"ืœ) ืœืคืจืฉ ืขืœ ืคื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจ'ื™ื•ื ื” (ื‘ืฉืข"ืช ืฉืขืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืื•ืช ื•') "ืืžืช ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ืžืŸ ื”ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ืฉื ื›ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ื—ื˜ื ืœืคืขืžื™ื, ื›ืขื ื™ืŸ ืฉื ืืžืจ ื›ื™ ืื“ื ืื™ืŸ ืฆื“ื™ืง ื‘ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจ ื™ืขืฉื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื•ืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื,"ื“ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืชืžื•ื” ื“ืžืชื—ืœื” ืืžืจ ื“ื™ืฉ ืžืŸ ื”ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื, ื“ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืžืงืฆืชื, ื“ื ื›ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ื—ื˜ื, ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืข"ื– ืคืกื•ืง ื“ืื™ืŸ ืฆื“ื™ืง ื‘ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจ ืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื, ื“ืžืฉืžืข ื“ื›ื•ืœื ื—ื•ื˜ืื™ื. ื•ืชื™ืจืฅ ื”ืจื”"ื’ ืจ'ืืœื™'ื–"ืœ ื“ื‘ืืžืช ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ืืฉืจ ืื™ืŸ ื—ื•ื˜ืื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ืืฉืจย ืขื•ืฉื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ย ื‘ื”ื ืื™ืŸ ืžื™ ืฉืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื.ย ย ื“ื”ื™ื™ื ื•, ืฉืคื™ืจ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฆื“ื™ืง ืœืขืฆืžื• ื•ืœื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ื–ื•ื™ืช ื•ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืืช ื”', ืื‘ืœ ืžื™ ืฉืžืœืžื“ ืœืื—ืจื™ื ื•ืขื•ืกืง ื‘ืฆืจื›ื™ ืฆื‘ื•ืจ "ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘[45]"ื"ื ืœื• ืฉืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื[46].

ื•ืขืฆื ื™ืกื•ื“ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืžืฉืš ื—ื›ืžื” ืคืจืฉืช ื ื— (ื˜':ื›'), ื‘ืคืชื•ื—ื™ ื—ื•ืชื ืœื”ื—ืช"ืก (ื ื“ืคืก ื›ื”ืงื“ืžื” ืœืฉื•"ืช ื™ื•"ื“),ย ย ื•ื‘ืกืคื•ืจื ื• ืกื•ืฃ ืคืจืฉืช ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช (ื•':ื—')[47].

ื•ืœืคื™"ื– ืžื™ื•ืฉื‘ ืงื•ืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืชื•ืก', ื“ื”ืืจื‘ืขื” ืžืชื• ื‘ืขื˜ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื ื—ืฉ, ืขื ื›ืœ ืฆื“ืงืชื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœืชืืจ ื•ืื™ืŸ ืœืฉืขืจ, ืœื ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืฉืœื™ืžื“ื• ื•ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื• ืขืœ ืื—ืจื™ื ื•ืขืกืงื• ื‘ื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื[48]ย ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืžื“ื”[49]ย ืฉืขืฉื• ืืืข"ื”, ืžืฉื” ืจื‘ื™ื ื•, ื•ื“ื•ื“ ื”ืžืœืš, ื“ื”ื (ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ืื•) ืงื™ื™ืžื• ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”'ืœืžืขืŸ ืืฉืจ ื™ืฆื•ื” ืืช ื‘ื ื™ื• ื•ืืช ื‘ื™ืชื• ืื—ืจื™ื•, ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ื›ืืœื• ื–ื›ื• ืœืขืฆืžื ื•ื–ื›ื” ืœื“ื•ืจื™ ื“ื•ืจื•ืช, ื•ืžืฆื“ื™ืงื™ ื”ืจื‘ื™ื ื›ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื™ื–ื”ื™ืจื•, ื•ืฆื“ืงืชื ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœืขื“[50].

ื•ื ืžืฆื, ืฉืœื ืจืง "ืฉื˜ืžื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื ืคื™ืœื•ืช ื•ื”ืžื›ืฉื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ื”ื›ื— ื•ื”ื“ื—ื™ืคื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘,"ืืœื ื”ื“ื—ื™ืคื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ ื”ื•ื ื’ืจืžื ืœื ืคื™ืœื•ืช, ื•ืืขืค"ื› ื–ื”ื• ืจืฆื•ื ื• ื™ืชื‘"ืฉ.ย 

"ื‘ื ื™ื ืืชื ืœื”'ืืœืงื™ื›ื"
ื˜) ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืœ"ื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืžืจ'ืฆื“ื•ืง ื”ื›ื”ืŸ (ืชืงื ืช ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ืกื™'ื˜"ื•, ืื•ืช ืค"ื“) ืฉื”ืžืงื•ืจ ืœื”ืขื ื™ืŸ ืฉ"ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื"ื”ื•ื ืžืฉื™ื˜ืช ืจ"ืž ื‘ืงื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ืŸ ืœ"ื•. ื“ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืš ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืš ื ืงืจืื• ื‘ื ื™ื, ื•ื”ืœื›ื” ื›ืžื•ืชื• ื“ื“ื™ื™ืง ืงืจื[51].ย 

ื•ื™ืฉ ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืœืžืฉ"ื› ื‘ื”ื’ื“ื” ืฉืœ ืคืกื— "ืžื’ื™ื“ ืžืฉื ื”" (ืœื‘ืขืžื—"ืก ืฉื•"ืช ืžืฉื ื” ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ื–"ืœ) ื“ื’ื ื‘ืขืœ ื”ื”ื’ื“ื” ืกืชื ื›ืจ"ืž. ื“"ื›ื ื’ื“ ืืจื‘ืขื”ย ื‘ื ื™ืย ื“ื‘ืจื” ืชื•ืจื”,"ื“ืืฃ ื”ืจืฉืขื™ื ื“ื”ื•ืฆื™ืื• ืขืฆืžืŸ ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœ ื•ื›ืคืจื• ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื ืงืจืื• ื‘ื ื™ื ืœืžืงื•ื. ื•ื–ื” ืชื•ืื ืฉื™ื˜ืชื• (ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ืžืฉื "ื” ื—"ื• ืกื™'ื›"ื–, ื›"ื—, ืœ[52]') ื”ืžื•ื‘ื ื‘"ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื›ืจ" (ืขืžื•ื“ ืข"ื–, ื•ื‘ืฆื“ืง ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืžื—ื‘ืจ ื“"ื ื™ื›ืจื™ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืืžืช") ืœื—ืœื•ืง ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืื“ืžื•"ืจ ืžืžื•ื ืงืื˜ืฉ ื–ืฆ"ืœ[53], ื•ืก"ืœ ื“ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ืชืคืœืœ ืขืœ ื ื“ื—ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืฉื™ืฉื•ื‘ื• ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœืžื”.ย 

ื•ื›ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉื "ื” ื”ื•ื ืžื ื”ื’ ื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ื ื•ืกื— ืชืคืœืช ื–ื›ื” ืฉืื•ืžืจื™ื ื‘ื›ื ื™ืกืช ื™ื•ื ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ[54]ย "ื•ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ืชืจื—ื ืขืœ ืคื•ืฉืขื™ ืขืžืš ื‘ื™ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืชืŸ ื‘ืœื‘ื ืคื—ื“ ื”ื“ืจ ื’ืื•ื ืš ื•ื”ื›ื ืข ืœื‘ื ื”ืื‘ืŸ ื•ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืœืคื ื™ืš ื‘ืœื‘ ืฉืœื ื•ื›ื•'ื’ื ื›ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื• ืืฉืžื” ืœืคื ื™ืš ืขื“ ืฉื ื ืขืœื• ื‘ืคื ื™ื”ื ื“ืจื›ื™ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืืชื” ื‘ืจื—ืžื™ืš ื”ืจื‘ื™ื ืชื—ืชื•ืจ ืœื”ื ื—ืชื™ืจื” ืžืชื—ืช ื›ืกื ื›ื‘ื•ื“ืš ื•ืงื‘ืœื ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื•ื›ื•'[55]."

"ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื"
ื™) ื‘ืกื™'ื‘'ื”ื‘ื™ื ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืื’"ืž (ืื‘ื”"ืข ื—"ื“ ืกื™'ืค"ื’) ื“ื›ืœ ืกื•ื’ื™ื™ืช ื”ื’ืž' (ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ืž"ื“.) ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ "ื™ืฉืจืืœืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื"ย ื”ื•ื™ ืจืง ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืื’ื“ื”[56]ย ืœื”ืฉืžื™ืขื ื• ื—ื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœื”ืงื‘"ื” ืฉืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืฉืขื” ืฉื”ืŸ ื—ื•ื˜ืื™ื ืงื•ืจื ืื•ืชืŸ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื•ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืื’"ืž ื“ื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ื ื‘ืจ ื–ื‘ื“ืย ย ื‘ื’ืž'ืฉื "ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื"ื”ื•ื™ ืขืœ ืฉืืจย ื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœย (ื•ืœื ืขืœ ืขื›ืŸ) ื“ืืข"ืค ืฉื’ื ื”ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ื›ื—ื•ื˜ืื™ื ืžื—ืžืช ืขืจื‘ื•ืช[57], ืืค"ื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืขืœื™ื”ื, ื•ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื’"ืžย ื“ื›ืŸ ืžืฉืžืข ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจืฉ"ื™ย ืฉื›ืชื‘ "ืžื“ืœื ืืžืจ ื—ื˜ื ื”ืขื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ืงื“ื•ืฉืชืŸ ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ."

ื•ื™ืฉ ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื›ืขื™ืŸ ื”ื‘ื ืช ื”ืื’"ืž ื‘ื”ื’ืž'ื•ื‘ืจืฉ"ื™ ื›ืชื‘ื• ืขื•ื“ ืžื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื. ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื•"ืช ืืคืจืงืกืชื ื“ืขื ื™ื (ื—"ื‘ ืื•"ื— ืกื™'ื™"ื˜) ื•ื–"ืœ "ื•ืชื• ื“ืขืœ ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืื ื™ ืชืžื”, ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืžืืžืจื ื–"ืœ, ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื ืœืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื•ืžืจ ืขืฆืžื•, ื”ืจื™ ื‘ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ืฉื ื”ื›ื ืงืืžืจ "ื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ"ืืจ"ื ื‘"ื– ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื, ืืžืจ ืจ"ื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื“ืืžืจื™ ืื™ื ืฉื™, "ืืกื ื“ืงืื™ ื‘ื™ื ื™ ื—ื™ืœืคื™ ืืกื ืฉืžื” ื•ืืกื ืงืจื• ืœื”".ย ื•ืคืจืฉ"ื™ย ืžื“ืœื ืืžืจ ื—ื˜ื ื”ืขื, ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืงื“ื•ืฉืชืŸ ืขืœื™ื”ื ืขื›"ืœ. ื•ื”ืจื™ ื”ื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” ืœืคืขื "ื“, ื“ืืข"ืค ืฉื ืชื—ื™ื™ื‘ื• ื›ืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ื—ื˜ืื• ืฉืœ ืขื›ืŸ ืžื˜ืขื ืขืจื‘ื•ืช, ืž"ืžย ืงืจื™ ืœื”ืขืย ื‘ืฉื ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื“ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืงื“ื•ืฉืชื ืขืœื™ื”ื, ื•ื–ื” ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ืžืฉืœ ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืืกื ื›ื•'ื“ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื”ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ื•ื›ื•'ืื‘ืœ ื—ื™ืœืคื ื’ื•ืคื ืœื ืงืจื• ืœื™'ืืกื"ืขื›"ืœ ื”ืืคืจืงืกืชื ื“ืขื ื™ื.ย ย ย ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื™ืฆื™ื‘ (ืื‘ื”"ืข ืกื™'ืก"ื‘, ืื•ืช ื–:ื›"ื’) "ื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืืžืจ ืจ'ืื‘ื ื‘ืจ ื–ื‘ื“ื ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื, ืืžืจ ืจ'ืื‘ื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื“ืืžืจื™ ืื™ื ืฉื™ ืืกื ื“ืงืื™ ื‘ื™ื ื™ ื—ื™ืœืคื™ ืืกื ืฉืžื™ื” ื•ืืกื ืงืจื• ืœื™ื” ืขื™ื™"ืฉ. ื•ื›ื•'ื•ื”ื ืœืข"ื“ ื‘ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื”ืขื ื™ืŸ, ื“ื”ื ื” ืจืฉ"ื™ ื‘ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ืฉื ื‘ื™ืืจ ื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžื“ืœื ืืžืจ ื—ื˜ื ื”ืขื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ืงื“ื•ืฉืชื ืขืœื™ื”ื ืขื›"ืœ, ื•ื›ื•'ื•ื”ื™ื™ื ื•ย ื“ืงืื™ ืขืœ ื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœย ืฉืงื“ื•ืฉืชื ืขืœื™ื”ื ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ืขื›ืŸื•ื›ื•'ื•ืœืžื“ ื”ืฉ"ืก ืžื›ืืŸ ื“ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฉื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื ืฉืืจ ื‘ืงื“ื•ืฉืชื• ืืฃ ืฉื”ื—ื•ื˜ื ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื,ย ื•ื–ื” ื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืจืฉ"ื™ย ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ืงื“ื•ืฉืชื ืขืœื™ื”ื. ื•ืขืœ ื–ื” ื”ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืฉืœ ื•ื›ื•', ื•ื”"ื  ื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืืฃ ืฉืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ืจืฉืขื™ื ืž"ืž ืœื ื ืคื’ืžื” ืงื“ื•ืฉืชื ื•ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื, ืืžื ื ื”ืžื•ืžืจ ืขืฆืžื• ืœื ื ืงืจื ื™ืฉืจืืœ. "

ืื‘ืœ ืืฃ ื“ื‘ื”ื‘ื ืช ื”ื’ืž'ื•ืจืฉ"ื™ ืฉื•ื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื, ื‘ืขืฆื ื”ืขื ื™ืŸ ื—ื™ืœื•ืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ืฉ. ื“ืœื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื™ืฆื™ื‘ ืžืฉื•ื ื“ื”ื’ืž'ืžื™ื™ืจื™ ื‘ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื"ื› ื"ืฉ ื”ื ื™ ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื“ืก"ืœ ื“ืžื•ืžืจ ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื“ื™ื ื• ื›ืขื›ื•"ื, ื“ื”ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืื™ืŸ ื›ืืŸ ืขื ื™ืŸ "ื™ืฉืจืืœืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื[58]"ย (ื•ื›ืขื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ืืคืจืงืกืชื ื“ืขื ื™ื ืฉื), ืžืฉื"ื› ืœื”ืื’"ืž ืื™ืŸ ืฆื•ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืœื”ืขื ื™ืŸ ื“ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื, ื“ื‘ื•ื“ืื™ ืžื•ืžืจ ื“ื™ื ื• ื›ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืžืฉื•ื ื“ืœื ืฉื™ื™ืš ื”ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ืœื™ืฉืจืืœ ืฉื™ืขืฉื” ื‘ื“ื™ืŸ ื ื›ืจื™.

ื•ืืฃ ื“ื‘ืขืฆื ืกื‘ืจืช ื”ืื’"ืž ื ืจืื™ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•[59], ืื‘ืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ื“ื”ืคื•ืกืงื™ื ืฉื ืจืื• ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ื“"ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื"ื”ื•ื™ ืžืงื•ืจ ืœื”ืœื›ื” ืฆ"ืœ ื“ืจืง ืžืœื™ืฆืช ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ืขืœืžื ื”ื•ื, ื‘ืฆื“ืง ื”ืขื™ืจ ื‘ื–ื” ื‘ืกืคืจ "ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื›ืจ" (ืขืžื•ื“ ืœ"ื”) ื“ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืจื“ื›ื™ (ื™ื‘ืžื•ืช ืกื™'ื›"ื˜) ืœื ืžืฉืžืข ื›ืŸ. ื•ื‘ืืžืช ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช, ื‘ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ื•ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื, ื“ืฉืคื™ืจ ืžืฉืžืข ืžืœืฉื•ื ื ื“ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘"ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื"ื›ืžืงื•ืจ ื’ืžื•ืจ ืœื”ืœื›ื” ื•ืœื ืจืง ื›ืžืœื™ืฆืช ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ[60]ย -- ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ ืจืžื‘"ืŸ (ื‘"ืž ืข"ื:), ื‘"ื™ ืื•"ื— ืกื™'ื "ื”, ื’ืจ"ื ื™ื•"ื“ ืกื™'ืงื "ื˜ ืก"ืง ื“', ื˜ื•ืฉื•"ืข ื•ื ื•"ื› ืื‘ื”ืข"ื–ย ย ืกื™'ืงื "ื– (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื‘ื’ืจ"ื ืก"ืง ื–'), ื•ื›ื”ื ื” ืจื‘ื•ืช.

ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืœืฉืžื”
ย ย ื™"ื) ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืค"ื - ืค"ื‘ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืงืฉื•ืช ืขืœ ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ื ืคืฉ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื (ืคืจืง ื–'ื‘ืคืจืงื™ื ืฉืœืื—ืจ ืฉืขืจ ื’') ื“ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขืœ ื“ืจืš "ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืœืฉืžื”"ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ื ื•ื”ื’ืช ืืœื ืงื•ื“ื ืžืชืŸ ืชื•ืจื” ืœื‘ื“, ื•ืฆ"ืข ื“ื”ื ืขืฆื ื”ืœื™ืžื•ื“ (ื‘ื ื–ื™ืจ ื›"ื’:) ื”ื•ื ืžื™ืขืœ ื“ื”ื™ืชื” ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘ ืื—ืจ ืž"ืช. ื•ื›ืชื‘ ืœืชืจืฅ ื“ื‘ืืžืช ืงื•ืฉื™ื ืžืขื™ืงืจื ืœื™ืชื, ื“ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืงื™ื ื™ ืœื ืžื‘ื ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืžื”, ื•ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื ืคืฉ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืืžื•ืจื™ื ืจืง ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื“ื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ.

ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืืžืช ืื™ื ื• ื‘ืจื•ืจ ื›ืœืœ ื“ื™ืขืœ ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืžื‘ื "ื™.ย ย ื“ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื™ืœืงื•ื˜ ืฉืžืขื•ื ื™ (ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ืจืžื– ื˜') "ื™ืฉ ื ืฉื™ื ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช ื’ื™ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืจ, ืืกื ืช, ืฆืคืจื”, ืฉืคืจื”, ืคื•ืขื”, ื‘ืช ืคืจืขื”, ืจื—ื‘, ืจื•ืช, ื•ื™ืขืœ ืืฉืช ื—ื‘ืจ ื”ืงื™ื ื™."ืื‘ืœ ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื™ืช ืจืขื ืŸ ืฉื ื“ื™"ืœ ืฉื ืชื’ื™ื™ืจื” ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืžืขืฉื”. ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ื‘ื“ื•ืจืฉ ืœืฆื™ื•ืŸ ืœื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ื”ื ื•"ื‘ (ืกื•ืฃ ื“ืจื•ืฉ ื‘'ื“"ื” ื‘ื• ื‘ื™ื•ื) ื•ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืขืจื™ื ื—ืœืง ืื•ืจื— ื—ื™ื™ื ืกื™ืžืŸ ืœื“.

ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืืžืช ืžืฆื™ื ื• ื‘ื—ื–"ืœ ื•ื‘ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ื“ื›ื‘ืจ ื ืชื’ื™ื™ืจื” ื‘ืฉืขืช ืžืขืฉื”. ื“ื”ื ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืฉื”ืจื’ื” ืœืกื™ืกืจื ื‘ื™ืชื“ ื•ืœื ื‘ื›ืœื™ ื–ื™ืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืขืœ ืื™ืกื•ืจ ื›ืœื™ ื’ื‘ืจ, ื•ืื™ืกื•ืจ ื–ื” ืฉื™ื™ืš ืืฆืœื” ืจืง ืื ื›ื‘ืจ ื ืชื’ื™ื™ืจื”. ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื”ย ย ื‘ืจืฉ"ื™[61]ย ื ื–ื™ืจ ื "ื˜., ื‘ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฉ"ืก ืฉื (ื“ื”ื‘ื™ื ื“ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืชืจื’ื•ื ื•ื‘ื™ืœืงื•ื˜), ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ืื’ืจ"ืž (ืื•"ื— ื—"ื“ ืกื™'ืข"ื”),ย ย ื•ื‘ืฉื•"ืช (ื‘ืฆืœ ื”ื—ื›ืžื” ื—"ื” ืกื™'ืงื›"ื•).ย 

ื•ืœืชืจืฅ ื”ืงื•ืฉื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื ืคืฉ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื -- ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืžืฉ"ื› ื”ื ืฆื™"ื‘ (ื”ืขืžืง ื“ื‘ืจ ืกื•ืฃ ืฉืœื—), ื•ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ "ื”ืงื“ืžื•ืช ื•ืฉืขืจื™ื"ืขืœ ื”ื ืคืฉ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉื (ืื•ืช ื‘'), ื•ื‘ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืœื ืคืฉ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื (ื‘ื ื™ ื‘ืจืง, ืชืฉืž"ื˜, ืื•ืช 7)[62].


ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
ื™"ื‘) ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืค"ื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœื“ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืขืœ ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืงืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืœ ืžื”ื—ืžื•ืจ, ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืžืก'ืขืงื™ื“ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœื—ืœืง ื“ื–ื”ื• ืจืง ื”ื™ืชืจ ืœื™ื—ื™ื“ ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืœืจื‘ื™ื. ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืก'"ืœื‘ื•ืฉื” ืฉืœ ืชื•ืจื”"ืœื”ืจื‘ ืคืกื— ืืœื™ื”ื• ืคืืœืง ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื (ืกื™'ืž"ื“ ืื•ืช ื’' - ื”') ืžืฉ"ื› ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื‘ื›ืœืœ, ื•ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืขืงื™ื“ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ืคืจื˜.

ื•ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืฉืžืขืชื™ ื‘ืฉื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื“ืืฃ ื“ื™ืฉ ืžืชื™ืจื™ืŸ ืœื”ื–ืžื™ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืฉื•ืžืจื™ ืชื•"ืž ืœืกืขื•ื“ืช ืฉื‘ืช ื‘ืžื˜ืจืช ืœืงืจื‘ื ืœื™ื”ื“ื•ืช, ืืฃ ืื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ืฉื™ื—ืœืœื• ื‘ืฉื‘ืช ื›ืฉื‘ืื™ื ื‘ืจื›ื‘, ืื‘ืœ ื”ื•ืจืื” ื–ื• ืื™ืŸ ืžื’ืœื™ืŸ ืืœื ืœืฆื ื•ืขื™ืŸ, ืื‘ืœ ื"ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ื•ืจืื” ื›ืœืœื™ืช ืœื›ืœ ืื•"ื[63].ย ย 

ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ื”ื•ืจืื” ืœื™ื—ื™ื“, ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืืœืชื™ ืืช ื”ื’ืจื™"ืฉ ืืœื™ืฉื™ื‘ ื–ืฆ"ืœ ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืื—ื“ ืžื‘ื ื™ ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™, ืื™ืฉ ื™ืงืจ ืฉืจืฆื” ืœืงืจื‘ ืœืชื•"ืž ืื‘ืœ ืœืฆืขืจื• ื‘ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื"ื ืœืฉืžืจ ืฉื‘ืช ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื›ื”ืœื›ืชื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืคื ื™ ืœื—ืฅ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื•, ืื ืžื•ืชืจ ืœื™ ืœืœืžื“ื• ื”ืื™ืš ืœื—ืœืœ ืฉื‘ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื™ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืจืง ืžื“ืจื‘ื ืŸ ื•ื›ื•'. ื•ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื“ืžื•ืชืจ ืœืœืžื“ ื”ืกื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืขืžื• ื•ื”ื•ื ืขืจื•ื ื™ืขืฉื” ื‘ื“ืขืช, ืื‘ืœ ืืกื•ืจ ืœืคืกื•ืง ื•ืœืœืžื“ื• ืžื” ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื—ืœืœ ื”ืฉื‘ืช.

ื™"ื’) ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืฆ"ื“ ื”ืขื™ืจ (ื‘ื“ืจืš ืื’ื‘) ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ืื ืฉื™ื™ืš ืœื•ืžืจ ื“ืืคืฉืจ ืœื—ืœื•ืง ืขืœ ื”ื’ืž'ื“ื”ื ื‘"ื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื‘ื˜ืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื‘"ื“ ื—ื‘ื™ืจื• ืข"ืค ื™"ื’ ืžื“ื•ืช. ื•ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ื“ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื“ืœืขืชื™ื“ ื™ื”ื™'ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื›ื‘"ืฉ (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ ืฉืžื•ืืœ ืืฉื›ื ื–ื™, ืืœืคื ื‘ื™ืชื ืชื ื™ืชื ื“ืฉืžื•ืืœ ื–ืขื™ืจื, ื—"ื ืขืžื•ื“ย 241 - 244), ื•ื"ื› ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื“ืœืขืช"ืœ ื™ืฉืชื ื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžื“ื™ื ื ื“ื’ืž'. ืื‘ืœ ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื–ื” ื’ื•ืคื ื“ื™ื ื ื“ื’ืžืจืืฉื‘"ื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืกืชื•ืจ ื—ื‘ื™ืจื•. ื•ื“ื›ืžื• ื“ืžื” ื“ื”ืชืฉื‘ื™ ื™ืชืจืฅ ื›ืœ ื”"ืชื™ืงื•"ืฉื‘ืฉ"ืก ืœื ื”ื•ื™ ืกืชื™ืจื” ืœื”ื’ืž'ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื”ืš ื›ืœืœื ื“ื‘"ื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื‘ื˜ืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื—ื‘ื™ืจื•. ื•ืื“ืจื‘ื” -- ืื ื"ื ืœื”ื ืœื‘ื˜ืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื“ื™ื ื• ืฉืœ ื‘"ื” ื"ื› ื–ื” ื’ื•ืคื ื™ื”ื™'ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ืœ ื“ื™ื ื ื“ื’ืž'ื“ื ืคืกืง ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื™ื“ื ืœื‘ื˜ืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื‘"ื“ ืื—ืจ.

ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืž'ื™ื•ืžื ืค'ืข"ื ื•ื‘ืจืฉ"ื™ย ย ืฉื, ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื•ืช ืžืฉื” (ื™ื‘ืžื•ืช ืคืจืง ื“'ื”ืขืจื” ื "ื˜), ื•ื‘ืก'"ื‘ืืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœืžื”" (ืœื”ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื–ืœืžืŸ ื‘ืœืืš ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื, ืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืฉื™"ื - ืฉื™"ื‘ ื”ืขืจื” ื“').

ื™"ื“) ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืฆ"ื” ื”ืขื™ืจ ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ืœืคืจืฉ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืžื” ืฉืœื ื›ื™ื•ื ื• ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™. ื™ืฉ ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืœืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืย ย ื”ืจื”"ื’ ืจ'ืžื™ื›ืœ ืฉื•ืจืงื™ืŸ ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื (ืก'ืžื’ื“ ื’ื‘ืขื•ืช ืขื•ืœื ื—"ื‘ ืขืžื•ื“ ื–') ืžืกื•ืจื” ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ื’ืจื™"ื“ ื”ืœื•ื™ ืกืืœืื•ื•ื™ื™ืฆื™ืง ื–"ืœ ืžืื‘ื™ื• ื”ื’ืจ"ืž ื•ืžื“ื•ื“ื• (ื‘ืขืœย ย ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ืžืœืš) "ืฉื”ืจืžื‘"ืย ย ื›ืชื‘ ืืช ืกืคืจื• ื‘ืจื•ื— ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ, ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ื›ืชื‘ื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื, ืื™ืŸ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื‘ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืช"ืขืœ ื”ื™ื“ ื”ื—ื–ืงื”ย ื•ืฉืคื™ืจ ืืคืฉืจ ืœืชืจืฅ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ืืฃ ื›ืฉืชื™ืจืฅ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื—ืจ ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื• (ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืฉื ื“ื›ืขื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืื•"ืช ืืฃ ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื”ืฉื•"ืข). ื•ื›ื ืจืื” ื“ื›ืŸ ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ื’ืจ"ืž ื–"ืœ ืžืคื™ ืงื“ืฉื• ืฉืœ ืื‘ื™ื• ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ ื”ื’ืจ"ื— ืžื‘ืจื™ืกืง, ื•ื›ืžื• ื“ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืฉื‘ื™ืืจ ื”ื’ืจ"ื— ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื‘ืž"ืช ืืฃ ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœื—ื›ืžื™ ืœื•ื ื™ืœ ื“ื™ืฉ ื˜"ืก ื‘ืžืฉื ื” ืชื•ืจื”ย ย (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืœ'ื ื–ืงื™ ืžืžื•ืŸ ืค"ื“ ื”"ื“ ื•ื‘ื›ืก"ืž ื•ื‘ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ ืจื‘ื™ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืœื•ื™ ืฉื), ื•ื›ืŸ ืžืคื•ืจืกืžืช ืฉืžื•ืขื” ื›ื–ื• ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื ื”ื’ืจ"ื—, ื•ืžืกื•ืจื” ื–ื• ื”ื™ื ืืฃ ืœืžืขืœื” ื‘ืงื•ื“ืฉ, ื“ื›ืŸ ืก"ืœ ื–ืงื ื™ ื”ื’ืจ"ื— ื”ื ืฆื™"ื‘ ื•ื”ื’ืจ"ื— ืžื•ื•ืืœืื–ื”ื™ืŸ ื–"ืœ, ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ื ืฉืžืช ื—ื™ื™ื (ื‘"ื‘ ืชืฉืก"ื‘, ืกื™'ืก"ื–) ื“ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจื”"ื’ ืจ'ืฉืœืžื” ื”ื›ื”ืŸ ืžื•ื•ื™ืœื ื ืœื”ื’ืจ"ื— ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ (ื‘ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฆื™"ื‘)ย ย ื•ื–"ืœ "ื•ื›ืŸ ืฉืžืขืชื™ ืžืคื™ ืื‘ื™ื• ื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ื–ืฆ"ืœ ืฉืืžืจ ื‘ืฉื ื—ืžื™ื• ื–ืงื ื• ื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ืžื•"ื” ื—ื™ื™ื ืžื•ื•ืืœื–ื™ืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื•ืžืจ ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ื‘ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื•ื”ืฉื•"ืข ืื ื”ื•ื ืขื•ืœื” ืข"ืค ื”ื”ืœื›ื”ย ืืฃ ืฉื‘ื•ื“ืื™ ืœื ื›ื•ื•ื ื• ืœื–ื”ืžืฉื•ืืฉืจื•ื— ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ ื ื–ืจืงื” ืขืœ ืœืฉื•ื ื". ื•ื›ื ืจืื” ื›ืŸ ืก"ืœ ื’ื ืžืจืŸ ื”ื—ืช"ืก ื–ื™"ืข -- ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ ืฉื•"ืช (ืกื™'ืง"ื ืกื•ืฃ ื‘ื“"ื” ืืžื ื) ื“ื”ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ืืฃ ื“ื›ืชื‘ ืฉื ื“"ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ืœื ืชื™'ื›ืŸ ืœื—ื›ืžื™ ืœื•ื ื™ืœ" (ื•ืข"ืข ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ื—ืช"ืก ื—ืœืง ื–'ืกื™'ื›"ื). ื•ื›ืขื™"ื– ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืคื "ื™ (ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ืœ"ื” ืข"ื‘ ื‘ื“"ื” ื•ืื™)[64].

ื•ืคื” ืชื”ื ืฉื‘ื™ืชืช ืงื•ืœืžืกื™. ื•ืืกื™ื™ื ืžืขื™ืŸ ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื”, ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจ'ืฆื“ื•ืง ื”ื ื›ืžื™ื ืงืจื™ื ืขืœ ื ืคืฉ ืขื™ืคื”, ื•ืคืชื— ืชืงื•ื” ืืฃ ืœ"ืžื™ ืฉื™ืงืœืงืœ ื”ืจื‘ื” ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื ืžื–ืจืข ื™ืขืงื‘ ื™ืขืฉื” ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื•ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื–ื›ื•ืช ื•ื›ื•'ื›ืžื• ืฉื–ื›ื” ืฉืœืžื” ื”ืžืœืš ืข"ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืืฉื” ืจืขื”. ืฉื‘ืกื™ื‘ืชื” ื ืชืขื•ืจืจ ืœืชืงืŸ ื”ื›ืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”. ื•ื–ื” ืฉื ืืžืจ ื•ื”'ื‘ืจืš ืืช ืื‘ืจื”ื ื‘ื›ืœ. ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืžื“ืจื™ื’ื•ืช ื›ืืžื•ืจ" (ืคืจื™ ืฆื“ื™ืง ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ืคืจืฉืช ื—ื™ื™ ืฉืจื”), ืื›ื™"ืจ.ย 



[1]ย Aside for the content, a feature that is certainly unique to our generation is that theย seferย was made immediately available atย Hebrew Books. In anย essayย at the Seforim Blog (discussed below), the author describes his admirable goals in publishing theย sefer. Undoubtedly these goals are enhanced by making it available to as wide an audience as possible. On the other hand, my experience is that people respectย seforimย given away less than those they paid for (see alsoย Bava Kammaย 85a).ย ย ย 
[2]Popular examples of the genre I discuss below are Rav Yosef Cohenโ€™s thorough โ€œSefer Ha-Teshuvaโ€ (Mโ€™Chon Harav Frank, Yerushalayim, 5766) and โ€œYad Kohenโ€ by Rโ€™ Dovid Yehudah Hakohen Duetsch (Yerushalayim, 5771), both based on Rambamโ€™sย Hilchos Teshuva. Popularย seforimย on Rabbeinu Yonah includeย Rabbi Aharon David Goldbergโ€™sย Meshivas Nefesh, andย Matnas Chelkoย based on the discourses of the Lakewood Mashgiach, Rav Matisyahu Salomon,ย Shlitโ€a.
[3]ย This includes the just published โ€œSefer Hagus Teshuva,โ€ (Lakewood 5775) by Rav Aryeh Malkiel Kotler,ย Shlitโ€a, Rosh Yeshiva of Beth Medrash Govoha in Lakewood (dedicated in memoryย of his mother Rebbetzin Rishel Kotler Zโ€L).
[4]ย Of course, these works quote extensively from other classic works on Teshuva (such as โ€œBais Elokimโ€ by Rโ€™ Moshe ben Yosef di Trani) and a wide range of sources from the books of Mussar. My point is that they frequently are written as commentaries to the works of Rambam and Rabbeinu Yonah (as the examples I cite above in note 2 and 3), and/or rely heavily on their words.
[5]Free will is a major theme in Rambamโ€™s writings, not so in that of Rabbeinu Yonah (who nevertheless views it as a fundamentally important concept, seeย Shaโ€™arey Teshuvaย 3:17 along with the comments inย Sefer Matnas Chelko).
[6]ย Levels 3, 4, 5, and 7 of the 20 levels listed by Rabbeinu Yonah.
[7]ย See below note 39.
[8]ย I once asked Rโ€™ Matisyahu Salomon how one is too avoid this pitfall when learning books of Mussar. Without directly answering the question, he pointed out that a Jew is frequently required to experience competing emotions, without one overtaking the other. He referenced Yirmiyahuโ€™s writing of the book of Eicha, which, like all prophecy, required a joyful spirit, as well as the fact that despite Rabbeinu Yonahโ€™s seemingly harsh demands, he still refers to the โ€œsweetnessย of Mussarโ€ (Shaโ€™arey Teshuvaย 2:13).
This idea that times of Teshuva demand joy and fear at the same time is discussed extensively in the context of the nature of the day of Rosh Hashana. See Rav Eliezer Menachem Man Shach,ย Michtavim Umaโ€™amarimย (volume 2, page 147), Rav Moshe Shapiro,ย Sefer Afikey Mayimย onย Yomim Noraimย (chapter 30, page 182),the just published โ€œSefer Hagus Teshuva,โ€ (see note 3) chapter 37, page 258, and the comments of Rabi Eliezer Eisenberg (pointed out to me by his son Rabbi Mordechai Eisenberg)ย here.ย 
[9]ย Rambam,ย Hilchos Teshuvaย 1:1 and 2:2.
[10]ย Ibid 2:3.
[11]ย His self-deprecating also manifest itself in a Tweet where he called his work his โ€œmediocre-opus.โ€ย ย 
[12]ย Another important source that allows for โ€œcomfortโ€ is Rโ€™ Yisroel Salanter โ€“ see his important (re)definition of โ€œcomplete Teshuvaโ€ inย Ohr Yisroelย (# 6 โ€“ 8). I hope to further discuss his thought on a different occasion.
[13]ย He further discusses these themes in an important essay at theย Hirhurim Blog.
[14]ย In chapter three it almost seems that Rโ€™ย Bashevkinย is afraid to elaborate on the full import of the seemingly radical Izbica statements, immediately muting their controversial nature by offering โ€œsolutions,โ€ lest his book be used as a source for those โ€œdisloyal "to the type ofย avodas Hashemย . . .ย they hoped to engender.โ€ One also gets this sense from the amount of warnings and caveatโ€™s given throughout theย seferย (see page 11, 17, 19). I almost got the feeling that it had the flaw that he โ€œdoth protest too much.โ€

[15]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ืžื ื—ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง (ื—"ื— ืกื™'ื‘') ื“ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ "ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉ ื ื•ืขื–"ืขืœ ื’ื‘ืจื ืจื‘ื ื”ื™ื ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ย ย ืฉืœื ื‘ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืžืื“. ืื‘ืœ ื”ื›ื ื›ื ืจืื” ืœื›ื•"ืข ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฆ'ืย ย ื”ื ื‘ื’ื“ืจ "ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉ ื ื•ืขื–"ื“ื”ื ืข"ืค ืžื•ืฉื›ืœ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื ืจืื” ื“ืกื•ืชืจ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื“"ืขื™ืงืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื•ื ื•ื”ื•ื ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื•ื”ืžืฆื•ื”"ืฉื‘ืœืขื“ื• "ืžื” ืžืงื•ื ืœื›ืœ ื”ืชื•ืจื”" (ืจืžื‘"ื ื”ืœ'ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืคืจืง ื”'). ื•ื’ื ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฆ'ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ "ื›ื™ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื™ืงืฉื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืœืื–ื ื™ื ื•ื›ื•'" (ื”ืงื“ืžืช ื ื›ื“ ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ ืžืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฆืข ืœืก'ืžื™ ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื—).
[16]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืžื™ ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื— ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืจื ืขื”"ืค ื•ืชื›ื—ืฉ ืฉืจื” (ื™"ื—:ื˜"ื•), ืฆื“ืงืช ื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ืื•ืช ืจื "ื–.
[17]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืžื™ ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื— ืกื•ืฃ ืคืจืฉืช ื‘ืœืง (ื ื“ืคืก ื‘ืคืจืฉืช ืคื ื—ืก) ืขื”"ืค ื•ื™ืจื ืคื ื—ืก(ื›"ื”:ื–), ื•ื‘ืคืจืฉืช ื›ื™ ืชืฆื ืขื”"ืค ื•ืจืื™ืช ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ื” (ื›"ื:ื™"ื),
[18]ย "ื“ื”ื™ื“ื™ืขื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืื—ืจ ื•ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืื—ืจ" --ย ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ย ย ืžืืžืจื™ืย ย ืœืจ'ืฆื“ื•ืง ื”ื›ื”ืŸ (ืขืžื•ื“ ืงืข"ื) ื‘ืฉื ื”ืืจ"ื™, ื”ื•ื‘ื ื‘ืก'ื‘ืจื’ื– ื“ื—ื ืชื–ื›ืจ (ืขืžื•ื“ ืž').
[19]ย ื•ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ื ืื•ืช ื™' -- "ืฉืคืขืžื™ืย ื“ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื ืฆื—ื• ื•ื›ื•'."
[20]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืก'ื•ื™ื•ืืœ ืžืฉื”, ืžืืžืจ ืฉืœืฉ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช, ืื•ืช ืงืค"ื‘ (ื”ื•ื‘ื ื‘ืก'"ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ"ืขืžื•ื“1232), ื•ื‘ืก'ื‘ื’ืŸ ื”ื—ื›ืžื” (ืขืžื•ื“148).
[21]ย ืกืคืจ "ื‘ื’ืŸ ื”ื—ื›ืžื”"ืœื”ืจื‘ ืฉืœื•ื ืืจื•ืฉ ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื (ืขืžื•ื“ย 146 - 147. ื”ืจืื•ื ื™ ืœื–ื” ืื—ื™ ื”ืจ'ืžืื™ืจ ืฉืœืžื” ืขืžื•ืฉ"ื˜.).
[22]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืจืฉ"ื™ ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ืคืจืง ืœ"ื– ืคืกื•ืง ื™"ื“, ื’ืž'ืกื•ื˜ื” ื™"ื ืข"ื, ื‘ื‘"ืจ (ืคืจืฉื” ืค"ื“ ืื•ืช ื™"ื’(.
[23]ย ืขื ื™ืŸ "ืžืขืฉื” ืื‘ื•ืช ืกื™ืžืŸ ืœื‘ื ื™ื"ื ืžืฆื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ืจืžื‘"ืŸ ืขื”"ืช, ืืฃ ืฉืœื ืžืฆืืชื™ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื–ื” ืžืžืฉ.ย ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื• ืœื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื™"ื‘:ื•', ื™"ื‘:ื™', ื›"ื•:ื›', ื•ืจื™ืฉ ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืฉืœื—. ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืคืจื™ ืฆื“ื™ืง ืจื™ืฉ ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ื’ืฉ "ื›ื™ ื›ืœ ืžืขืฉื” ืื‘ื•ืช ืกื™ืžืŸ ืœื‘ื ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืžื‘"ืŸ (ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื™"ื‘:ย ื•'). ื•ื’ื ื‘ืคืจืฉื” ื–ื• ืžืจืžื– ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ ืชื ื—ื•ืžื ืฉื›ืœ ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ืชื’ืœื•ืช ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืœืื—ื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืžืขื™ืŸ ื”ืชื’ืœื•ืช ื”ื™ืฉื•ืขื” ืœืขืชื™ื“."
[24]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ื‘ืžื•"ื  (ื—ืœืง ืฉื ื™ ืคืจืง ืž"ื—) "ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื”ื•ื ืžืื“ ืฉื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื"ื ืœื• ืžื‘ืœืชื™ ืกื‘ื” ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืื•ืชื•, ื•ืœืกื‘ื” ื”ื”ื™ื ืกื‘ื”, ื•ื›ืŸ ืขื“ ืฉื™ื’ื™ืข ื–ื”ย ืœืกื‘ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืœื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ืจ"ืœ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”'ื•ื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื•ย ื•ื›ื•'."ืขื•ื“ ืฉื "ื“ืข ื›ื™ ื”ืกื‘ื•ืช ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ืœื ืืฉืจ ืžื”ื ื™ืชื—ื“ืฉ ืžื” ืฉื™ืชื—ื“ืฉ ืื™ืŸ ื”ืคืจืฉ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ืกื‘ื•ืช ื”ื”ื ืขืฆืžื™ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช, ืื• ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”, ืื• ื‘ืžืงืจื”, ื•ื›ื•'ื•ื”ืžืงืจื” ื•ื›ื•'ื”ื•ื ืžืžื•ืชืจ ื”ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ื•ื›ื•'ื•ืจื•ื‘ื• ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื•ื”ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื•ื›ื•'"ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื”ื ืขื™ืžื™ื (ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื—ื•ื”"ืœ ืฉืขืจ ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ื”ืคืจืง ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™).
[25]ย ื•ืžืขืฉื™ ื”ื—ื˜ื ืžื‘ื™ื ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืœื”ื™ืคืš ืžืžื˜ืจืช ื”ื—ื•ื˜ื, ื“ื™ื•ืฉื‘ ื‘ืฉืžื™ื ื™ืฉื—ืง ื”'ื™ืœืขื’ ืœืžื• ื•ื‘ืช ืงื•ืœ ืื•ืžืจ "ื•ื ืจืื” ืžื” ื™ื”ื™ื• ื—ืœืžืชื™ื•" (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ืคืจืง ืœ"ื– ืคืกื•ืง ื›'ื•ื‘ืจืฉ"ื™ ืฉื), ื•ืขืฆืช ื”'ื”ื™ืย ย ืชืงื•ื (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืจืžื‘"ืŸ ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ืœ"ื–:ื˜"ื•-ื™"ื–).
[26]ย ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืืžืช, ืืฃ ืœืจืฉืข ืžื’ื™ืข ืงืฆืช ืฉื›ืจ ื›ืฉืžืขืฉื™ื• ืžื‘ื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืœืขื•ืœื (ืืฃ ืฉื–ื” ื”ื™'ื”ื™ืคืš ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื•). ื•ืžืคื ื™ ื–ื” ืžื‘ื ื™ ื‘ื ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืŸ ืœืžื“ื• ื•ืœื™ืžื“ื• ืชื•ืจื” ื‘ื‘ื ื™ ื‘ืจืงย ย ื•ืžื ื• ืจื‘ ืฉืžื•ืืœ ื‘ืจ ืฉื™ืœืช (ืขื™ื™ืŸย ื’ื™ื˜ื™ืŸ ื "ื–:, ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ืฆ"ื•:, ื•ื‘ืขื™ืŸ ื™ืขืงื‘ ื‘ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ืฉื), ื•ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืื™ื ื™ืฉ ืœื‘ืกื•ืžื™ ืขื“ ื•ื›ื•' -- ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืื•"ื— ืกื™'ืชืจืฆ"ื” ื•ื‘ื™ืฉื•ืขื•ืช ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื, ื—ื›ืžื” ื•ืžื•ืกืจ ืœื”ืกื‘ื ืžืงืœื (ื—"ื‘ ืขืžื•ื“ ืฉืž"ื”), ืงื“ื•ืฉืช ืœื•ื™ ื‘"ื›ืœืœื•ืช ื”ื ื™ืกื™ื"ย ย ื•ื‘ืงื“ื•ืฉื•ืช ืœืคื•ืจื™ื ืงื“ื•ืฉื” ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ืช, ื•ื‘ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืกย ย ืžื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืื’ื“ืช ื”ื—ื•ืจื‘ืŸ (ืœื™ื™ืงื•ื•ืื•ื“, ืชืฉ"ืข).
[27]ย ื›ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืื•ืจ ื™ื—ื–ืงืืœ. ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืžื‘"ืŸ (ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื˜"ื•:ื™"ื“), ื•ื‘ืจืื‘"ื“ ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” (ืค"ื• ื”"ื”).
[28]ย ื•ื–ื”ื• ืขื•ืžืง ื›ื•ื•ื ืช ื”ืคืกื•ืง'"ืืœืงื™ื ื—ืฉื‘ื” ืœื˜ื•ื‘ื”" (ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ืคืจืง ื 'ืคืกื•ืง ื›').ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื›"ื– ื‘ืืจื™ื›ื•ืช ื‘ืก'ื™ื ื”ื—ื›ืžื” ืชืฉืก"ื—, ืขืžื•ื“ ืชืงืฆ"ื• - ืชืจ"ื–.ย 
[29]ย ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืขื•ื“ ื‘ื’ืž'ื™ื•ืžื ื™"ื˜: - ื›'. ื•ื‘ืจืฉ"ื™ ืฉื ื™ื•ืžื ื›. "ืœืคืชื— ื—ื˜ืืช ืจื•ื‘ืฅ - ื™ืฆืจ ื”ืจืขย ย ืžื—ื˜ื™ืื• ื‘ืขืœ ื›ืจื—ื•" (ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืžื”ืจืฉ"ื ืฉื), ื•ืงื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ืŸ ืœ: ื• ื•ืค"ื. - :.
[30]ย ื›ืœืฉื•ื ื• "ื•ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื• ื‘ืฉื•ื ืขื ื™ืŸ ืœืฉื‘ื•ืจ ืืช ืœื‘ื‘ื• ื”ืจืข ืœื”ืชื—ืจื˜ ื‘ืœื‘ ืฉืœื ืขืœ ืคืฉืขื™ื•"ื•ื›ืฉืžืชื•ื“ื” "ืื™ื• ืœื‘ื‘ื• ืฉืœื ืขืžื•""ื•ืชื•ืงืฃ ืœื‘ื‘ื• ื”ืจืข ื‘ืœ ืขืžื• ื›ืœืœ ืœืฉื•ื ื—ืจื˜ื”."ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืกืคืจ ื™ื“ ื›ื”ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืœ'ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” (ืค"ื ื”"ื ืื•ืช ื“') ื“ื”ื‘ื™ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ื“ ืงื˜ื ื” ื•ื›ืชื‘ ื“ืžื™ื™ืจื™ "ืฉืžืชื—ืจื˜ ื”ื•ื ืขืœย ย ืžื” ืฉืขื‘ืจ ืขื“ ืขืชื”."ื•ื–ื” ืื™ื ื•, ื›ื“ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ืœื”ื“ื™ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•ย (ื•ื›ื ืจืื” ื˜ืขื” ื‘ื–ื” ื’ื ื‘"ืกืคืจ ื”ืžืคืชื—"ืฉื‘ืกืŸืฃ ืจืžื‘"ื ื”ื•ืฆืืช ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืคืจื ืงืœ).
[31]ย ื•ื›ืœืฉื•ื ื• "ื›ื™ ื›ื‘ืจ ืœื‘ื‘ ืื‘ืŸ ืœื• ื•ืื™ืŸ ื“ืจืš ืœื”ื˜ื•ืชื” ื‘ืฉื•ื ืคื ื™ื."
[32]ย ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ืžืฉื™ื‘ ื“ื‘ืจ ื—"ื‘ ืกื™'ืž"ื“, ื”ื•ื‘ื ืœืงืžืŸ ื‘ืก''ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื›ืจ ืขืžื•ื“ ืค"ื’ - ืค"ื“, ื“ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื“ื™ืฉ ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ืฉืœืœื ืžืฆื™ ืœื›ื™ื™ืฃ ืœื™ืฆืจื• .
[33]ย ื•ื–ื”ื• ืืฃ ื“ื‘ื”ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื ืจืื” ื“ืก"ืœ ื›ืขื™ืŸ ืชื•ืจืชย ย ื”ืื™ื–ื‘ื™ืฆ'ื, "ืฉื”ื›ืœ ื ืขืฉื” ืข"ื™ ื”ืฉื™"ืช" (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื•ืฆืื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื™ ื“'ืื•ืช ืž"ื - ืž"ื‘), ื•ื–ื”ื• ื›ืžืฉ"ื› ื“ืฉื ื™ ืขื ื™ื ื™ื ื ืคืจื“ื™ื ื™ืฉ.
[34]ย ื•ื‘ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื›ืจ ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื•ื—ื–ืจ ื•ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื–ื• -- "ืื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ื–ื›ื•ืช ืขืœ ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืขืฆืžืŸ" (ืขืžื•ื“ ื™"ื), "ื—ื•ื‘ื” ื’ืžื•ืจื” ื”ื™ื ืœื ื”ื•ื’ ื‘ื™ืจืืช ื—ื˜ื" (ืขืžื•ื“ ื™"ื–), "ืฉื—ืœื™ืœื” ื•ื—ืœื™ืœื” ืœื”ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื™ืชืจ ืืคื™ืœื• ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ืงืฆืช ื ื“ื ื•ื“ ืื™ืกื•ืจ" (ืขืžื•ื“ ื™"ื˜).
[35]ย See Alan Nadler, Hasidim on the Margin: Reconciliation, Antinomianism, and Messianism in Izbica/Radzin Hasidim (review)โ€ Jewish Quarterly Review Volume 96, Number 2, Spring 2006, pp 276 โ€“ 282. See there on page 281 โ€œMagid is still unable to point to single example of actual antinomian behavior by a single Hasid since the inception of the Izbica dynasty in 1839.โ€ See also,ย hereย ย and Marc B. Shapiro,ย Changing The Immutable: How Orthodox Judaism Rewrites Its Historyย (Portland, Oregon, 2015), 90.
ย [37]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืจืžื‘"ื ืค"ื‘ ืžื”ืœ'ืžื’ื™ืœื” ื”ืœ'ื™"ื–.
[38]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ ืžื•ื”ืจ"ืŸ ืชื•ืจื” ืจืค"ื‘.
[39]ย ื“"ืื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื ื™ืื•ืฉ ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื›ืœืœ" (ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ ืžื•ื”ืจ"ืŸ ืชื ื™ื ื ืชื•ืจื” ืข"ื—), "ื•ืื™ืŸ ืœืš ืžื—ืœื” ื›ืžื• ื”ื™ืื•ืฉ" (ืจื‘ื™ื ื• ืžืื•ืจื ื• ืจ'ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžืกืืœืื ื˜ ื–ืฆืœืœื”"ื” ื‘ืื•ืจ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืกื™'ื–'.).
[40]ย See alsoย hereย at notes 4 โ€“ 11.
[41]ย ื”ื’ื™ืจืกื ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ื”ืจื™ื˜ื‘"ื ื”ื•ื ื‘ืจืžื‘"ื ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืื™ืฉื•ืช ืคืจืง ื™'ื”ืœื›ื” ื’'. ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืคืจืง ื‘'ื”ืœ'ื™"ื ื›ืชื‘ ื›ื’ื™ืจืกื ืฉืœื ื•. ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืงืฆืช ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ืœื™ืชื ื”ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืฉื ื›ืœืœ, ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืจืžื‘"ื ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืช ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืคืจื ืงืœ ื•ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื ื•ืกื—ืื•ืช ืฉื.ย ย 
[42]ย ื•ื‘ื–ื” ื"ืฉ ื”ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื‘ืช ืœืชืฉื•ื‘ื” (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ื‘ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื›ืจ ืกื™'ื™"ื), ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžืฉืžืจ ืฉื‘ืช ื›ื”ืœื›ืชื• ื•ื›ื•'ืžื•ื—ืœื™ื ืœื•, ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื’ืž'ืฉื‘ืช ืงื™"ื—: ื•ื‘ืก'ืžืื•ืจ ื™ืฉืจืืœ (ืœื”ื’ืจืข"ื™ ื–ืฆ"ืœ) ืฉื.ย 
[43]ย ื•ื”ื‘ืจื›ื” ืœื”ื ื”ื•ื™ ื“ื›ืœ ื™ืžื™ื”ื, ืืฃ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืœื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื ืงื™ื™ื ื•ื˜ื”ื•ืจื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื”ื—ื•ืคื”, ืืค"ื” ื™ืชื ื”ื’ ืขืžื”ื ื‘ืžื“ืช ื”ืจื—ืžื™ื. ื•ื–ื” ื’ื ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืœื”ื—ืชืŸ ื•ื›ืœื” ืฉืืฃ ืœืื—ืจ ื”"ื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸ"ืฉืœ ื™ื•ื ื”ื—ื•ืคื”, ื”ืฉื‘ืข ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ื•ืฉื ื” ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ื›ืœ ื™ืžื™ ื—ื™ื™ื”ื ื™ืชื ื”ื’ ื–ื” ืœื–ื” ื›ืจืขื™ื ืื”ื•ื‘ื™ื, ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉืžื™ื“ ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื—ื˜ื (ืœื”ืจื‘ื” ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื, ื•ื“ืœื ื›ืจืฉ"ื™, ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉืขืจื™ ืื”ืจืŸ) ืงืจื ื”ืื“ื ืฉื ืืฉืชื• ื—ื•ื” ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ืชื” ืื ื›ืœ ื—ื™, ืœื—ื™ื™ื ื ื™ืชื ื” ื•ืœื ืœืฆืขืจ (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ื“ืฃ ืก"ื.).
Seeย ย here.
[44]ย ื•ื™ืคื” ื”ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื–ื” (ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืž"ื—) ืžืฉ"ื› ื”ืคื—ื“ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ืื’ืจื•ืชื™ื• (ืกื™'ืงื›"ื—) ืขื”"ืค "ืฉื‘ืข ื™ืคื•ืœ ืฆื“ื™ืง" (ืžืฉืœื™ ื›"ื“:ื˜"ื–)ย ย "ื“"ื”ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื™ื•ื“ืขื™ื ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ืฉื”ื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืžื”ื•ืช ื”ืงื™ืžื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ื”ื•ื ื“ืจืš 'ืฉื‘ืข ื ืคื™ืœื•ืช'ืฉืœื•."ื•ื‘ืืžืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืคื•ืจืฉื™ื ื‘ื—ื–"ืœ (ื™ืœืงื•ื˜ ืฉืžืขื•ื ื™, ืชื”ืœื™ื ืจืžื– ืชืจื›"ื—) "ืืžืจ ื“ื•ื“ ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื ืชืช ืœื ื• ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื•ื ืขื™ืžื™ื ื•ื›ื•'ื•ื›ื”"ื ืืœ ืชืฉืžื—ื™ ืื•ื™ื‘ืชื™ ืœื™ ื›ื™ ื ืคืœืชื™ ืงืžืชื™ย ืืœื•ืœื ืฉื ืคืœืชื™ ืœื ืงืžืชื™ย ื›ื™ ืืฉื‘ ื‘ื—ืฉืš ื”'ืื•ืจ ืœื™ ืืœื•ืœื ืฉื™ืฉื‘ืชื™ ื‘ื—ืฉืš ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืจ ืœื™."
[45]ย ื•ื‘ื–ื” ืžื™ื•ืฉื‘ ืงื•ืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืฉืœ"ื” ืฉื ื“ืœื™ืžื ืจืง 'ืื™ืŸ ืฆื“ื™ืง ื‘ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจ ืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื'. [ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืืžืช, ื™ืฉ ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ (ื“ื™ืฉ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืฉื‘ืืžืช ืื™ืŸ ื—ื•ื˜ืื™ื ื›ืœืœ ) ืžืœืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœืžื” ื”ืžืœืš (ืžืœื›ื™ื ื'ืคืจืง ื—'ืคืกื•ืง ืž"ื•, ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ืžื™ื ื‘'ืคืจืง ื•'ืคืกื•ืง ืœ"ื•) "ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ืื“ื ืืฉืจ ืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื."ืื‘ืœ ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืžืฆื•ื“ืช ื“ื•ื“ ืฉื ืฉื›ืชื•ื‘ "ืจ"ืœ ืื ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ื ืื“ื ืืฉืจ ืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืขืœ ื›ื•ืœื ื•ืื– ื‘ื•ื“ืื™ ืชืื ืฃ ื‘ื."ื•ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืืชื™ ืฉืคื™ืจ[.
[46]ย ื•ื‘ืกืคืจื• ืžืชื ืช ื—ืœืงื• ืขืœ ืฉืข"ืช ืื™ืชื ื™ืกื•ื“ ื–ื” ืื‘ืœ ืงืฆืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื—ืจ ื•ื–"ืœ ืฉื "ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ 'ื‘ืืจืฅ'ื‘ืคืกื•ืง ืฉื”ื•ื ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืžื™ื•ืชืจ -- ืืœื ืจ"ืœ ืฉื”ื•ื 'ื‘ืืจืฅ'ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ืฉื”ื ืคื•ืจืฉื™ื ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื•ื›ื•'ืื‘ืœ ืื ืฆื“ื™ืง ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื ืื ืฉื™ื ื•ืœื”ืชื ื”ื’ ื˜ื•ื‘ ืืชื, ื"ื ืฉืœื ื™ื—ื˜ื"ืขื›"ืœ.
[47]ย ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื“ืจืฉ ืžืฉื” ืคืจืฉืช ื ื— (ื•':ื˜') ืฉืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื’ื ื ื— ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœืฆื“ื™ืง "ืฉืขืฉื” ื˜ื•ื‘" (ื•ื“ืœื ื›ื”ืžืฉืš ื—ื›ืžื”), ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืขืฆื ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ ื›ืชื‘ ื›ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืš ื—ื›ืžื”, ื”ื—ืช"ืก, ื•ื”ืกืคื•ืจื ื•. ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื‘ืกืคืจ "ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ" (ืขืžื•ื“ย 234) ื”ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืขืฉื” ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื ืขื ื”ื’ืจ"ื ื•ื”ืžื’ื™ื“ ืžื“ื•ื‘ื ื, ื•ืžืฉืžืข ื“ื”ื’ืจ"ื ื—ื•ืœืง ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ื™ืกื•ื“. ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ืฉืžืขืชื™ ื”ืžืขืฉื” ืฉื‘ื›ื” ื”ื’ืจ"ื ื•ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื’ื™ื“.ย 
[48]ย ื•ืžืคื ื™ ื–ื” ืื™ืŸ ืจื™ืฉื•ืžืŸ ื ื™ื›ืจ ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช, ื•ืœื ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืฉืžืชืคืœืœื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืชื• ื‘ืขืช ืฆืจื”, ื•ืื™ื ื ืžืืœื• ืฉืœืžื“ื™ืŸ ืžื”ื ื”ื ื”ื’ืช ื—ื™ื™ื ืœื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื•ื›ื•'. ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืชื•ืก'ื‘ื›ื•ืจื•ืช (ื "ื—. ื‘ื“"ื”ย ย ื—ื•ืฅ) ื“ื›ื ืจืื” ืœืฉื™ื˜ืช ืจ"ืช ื”ื™ื” ื—ื›ื ื'ืฉืฉืžื• ืงืจื—ย ืฉื”ื™'ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืืฃ ืžืจ"ืข ื•ื—ื‘ื™ืจื™ื•ย ื•ืืค"ื” ืœื ืฉืžืขื ื• ืžืžื ื• ืžืื•ืžื”!
[49]ย ื“ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื“ื’ื ืืœื• ืฉืžืชื• ื‘ืขื˜ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื ื—ืฉ ืœืžื“ื• ื•ืขืกืงื• ื‘ื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื›ืœืœ, ื“ื”ืย ย ืžืฆื™ื ื• ื“ืขืžืจื ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื“ื•ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื•ืžืขืฉื™ื• ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื• ืขืœ ื”ื›ืœืœ (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืกื•ื˜ื” ื™"ื‘ ืข"ื, ื•ืข"ืข ื‘ืžื“ืจืฉ ืฉื™ืจ ื”ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืคืจืง ื”'ื‘ื“"ื” ื‘ืืชื™ ืœื’ื ื™), ื•ื‘ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ื ื—. "ื–ื” ื™ืฉื™ ืื‘ื™ ื“ื•ื“ ืฉื™ืฆื ื‘ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื ื•ื ื›ื ืก ื‘ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื ื•ื“ืจืฉ ื‘ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื,"ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืกื•ื›ื” ื“ืฃ ื ื‘ ืข"ื‘. ืื‘ืœ ืืขืค"ื› ืœื ืžืฆื™ื ื• ื‘ืืœื• ืฉืžืชื• ื‘ืขื˜ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื ื—ืฉ ืฉื”ืคืงื™ืจื• ื ืคืฉื (ื›ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฉืš ื—ื›ืžื”) ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืฉืขืฉื• ืืœื• ืฉื–ื›ื• ืœื”ืฉืคืขืชื ืœื“ื•ืจื™ ื“ื•ืจื•ืช. (ื•ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืžื” ืฉื™ืฉื™ ื ื—ืฉื‘ ื›ื‘ืœื™ ื—ื˜ื, ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ื‘ื•ื™ืง"ืจ ืคืจืฉืช ืชื–ืจื™ืข ื™"ื“:ื”, ื”ืจืž"ืข ืžืคืื ื• ืžื˜ืžืจ ื—ืงื•ืจ ื“ื™ืŸ 0ื—"ื’ ืคืจืง ื™'), ื•ื‘ืก'ืžืื•ืจ ื™ืฉืจืืœ (ืœื”ื’ืจืข"ื™ ื–ืฆ"ืœ) ืœืคืกื—ื™ื (ืงื™"ื˜.)
[50]ย ื•ื›ืฉื”ืฆืขืชื™ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืœืคื ื™ ืืืžื•"ืจ ื”ืจื‘ ื–ืขืœื™ื’ ืคืกื— ื”ืœื•ื™ ืืจืฅ ื–ืฆ"ืœ ื”ืจืื” ืœื™ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจื“"ืง ื‘ื™ืจืžื™ื”ื• (ืจื™ืฉ ืคืจืง ื”') "ืฉื•ื˜ื˜ื• ื‘ื—ื•ืฆื•ืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืจืื• ื ื ื•ื“ืขื• ื•ื‘ืงืฉื• ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื” ืื ืชืžืฆืื• ืื™ืฉ ืื ื™ืฉ ืขื•ืฉื” ืžืฉืคื˜ ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืืžื•ื ื” ื•ืืกืœื— ืœื”"ื•ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืจื“"ืง ื“ื”ืจื™ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืขื‘ื“ื™ ื”'ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉืืžืจ ื“ื•ื“ (ืชื”ื™ืœื™ื ืข"ื˜)ย ย "ื ืชื ื• ื ื‘ืœืช ืขื‘ื“ื™ืš ืžืื›ืœ ืœืขื•ืฃ ื”ืฉืžื™ื ื‘ืฉืจ ื—ืกื“ื™ืš ืœื—ื™ืชื• ืืจืฅ,"ื•ืชื™ืจืฅ ื”ืจื“"ืง ื‘ืฉื ืื‘ื™ื• ื“ื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื™ ื”ื™'ย ย ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื• ื ื—ื‘ืื™ื ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืจืฉืขื™ื ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื—ื•ืฆื•ืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžืฉืคื˜ ื•ืœื‘ืงืฉ ืืžื•ื ื”. ื•ื ืžืฆื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื“ืืฃ ื“ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ื›"ื– ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชืจืื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ืื—ืจื™ื, ื ื—ืฉื‘ ื›ืื™ืœื• ืื™ืŸ ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ืฉื‘ื–ื›ื•ืชื ื™ืกืœื— ื”' (ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืื‘ืŸ ืขื–ืจื ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื™"ื—:ื›"ื•).
[51]ย ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืจ'ืฆื“ื•ืง ืžืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืจืฉื‘"ื ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช (ื•ื‘"ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื›ืจ"ื™ืฉ ื˜"ืก, ื“ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ืฉื ื™'ื”ื•ื ื‘ืกื™'ืจืž"ื‘, ืœื ื‘ืกื™'ืจืฆ"ื‘). ื•ื”ืžื”ืจืฉื“"ื (ืื‘ื”"ืข ืกื™'ื™')ย ย ื•ื“ืขื™ืžื™ื” ื“ืก"ืœ ื“ืžืฉื•ืžื“ ื“ื™ื ื• ื›ืขื›ื•"ื ืกื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื“ื”ืœื›ื” ื›ืจ"ื™ย ย ืฉืก"ืœ ื“ืจืง ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื ื•ื”ื’ื™ืŸ ืžื ื”ื’ ื‘ื ื™ื ืงืจื•ื™ืŸ ื‘ื ื™ื (ื’ื ื‘ื–ื” ื™ืฉ ื˜"ืก ืฉื, ื“ื›ืชื‘ ืฉื ื“ื”ื ืกื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื“ืจ'ืžืื™ืจ ื•ืจ'ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื”ืœื›ื” ื›ืจ"ืž, ื•ืฆ"ืœ ื›ืจ"ื™).
[52]ย ืื‘ืœ ืกื™'ื›"ื˜ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ืื—ืจ, ื•ื”ืž"ืž ื‘ื‘ืจื’ื– ืจื—ื ืชื–ื›ืจ ืขืžื•ื“ ืข"ื– ื”ื•ื ืœื ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง. ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื’ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉื "ื” ื‘ื—ืœืง ื’ 'ืกื™'ื›"ื˜ ื•ื‘ื—ืœืง ื–'ืกื™'ื›'.
[53]ย ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืžืฉ"ื› ืœื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ืžื ื—ืช ืืฉืจ ื—"ื ืกื™'ืก"ื“.
[54]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื ื™ ื™ืฉืฉื›ืจ (ื—ื“ืฉ ืชืฉืจื™, ืžืืžืจ ื—'"ืงื“ื•ืฉืช ื”ื™ื•ื ืกื•ืฃ ืื•ืช ื‘'), ื•ื‘ืžื—ื–ื•ืจ "ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ืจื‘"ืขืžื•ื“ย 600ย .
[55]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื™ ืื“ื (ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืฉื‘ืช ื•ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ื›ืœืœ ืงืž"ื“).
[56]ย ื•ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืœ"ื‘ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื“ื™ืฉ ืžืงืฉื™ื ืขืœ ืฉื™ื˜ืช ืจืฉ"ื™ ื“ืœืžื“ ื“ื™ืŸ ื“ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื ืžื”ื’ืž'ื‘ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืขื›ืŸ, ืฉื”ืกื•ื’ื™ื ื ืจืื™ืช ื›ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืื’ื“ื”, ื•ืœืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืื’"ืž ื"ืฉ. ื•ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื’ื“ื” ืœื”ืœื›ื” ื”ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืž"ื” ืžื”ืžื”ืจืฉ"ื ื•ื”ืจื’ืื™"ื” ื–ืฆ"ืœ ื“ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ืื—ื“ ื–ื• ืขื ื–ื•. ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืžืฉ"ื› ื”ื’ืจืฉ"ื™ ื–ื•ื™ืŸ ื–ืฆ"ืœ ื‘ืื™ืฉื™ื ื•ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ื’ื™ืฉื” ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช ืฉื”ื™'ืœื”ืจื‘ ืงื•ืง ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ื–ื”, ืœืขื•ืžืช ืฉื™ื˜ืช ืจื•ื‘ ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื“ืก"ืœ ื“ืฉืชื™ ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช ื™ืฉ ื›ืืŸ ื•ืœื ืงืจื‘ ื–ื” ืืœ ื–ื”.ย ย ื•ื™ืฉ ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื‘ืกืคืจื™ ืจ'ืฆื“ื•ืง ื›ืŸ ืžืฆื™ื ื• ื”ืœื›ื” ื•ืื’ื“ื” ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ื™ื ื™ื—ื“.
[57]ย ืื‘ืœ ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ืžืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื’ืž'"ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ื"ื•ืœื "ืืข"ืค ืฉื—ื˜ืื•"ื•ื›ืŸ "ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื"ื•ืœื "ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื."
[58]ย ื•ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืžื”ืจืฉื“"ื (ืื‘ื”"ืข ืกื™'ื™'(, ืฉื ื•"ื  ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•ย ,ื•ืฉื”ืขืจื”"ืฉ (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืขืจื” ื”ื‘ื) ื›ืชื‘ ืขืœื™ื• ื“"ืื™ืŸ ื™ืกื•ื“ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื•"ื•ื”ืื’"ืž ื›ืชื‘ ืฉื”ื•ื "ื“ื‘ืจ ื–ืจ ื•ืžืฉื•ื ื”"ื•"ื˜ืขื•ืช ืฉืคืœื˜ื” ืงื•ืœืžื•ืกื•,"ื”ื•ื™ ื“ืื”"ื  ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ืฉืื ื• ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉืจืืœ ื›ืฉืจ ืืข"ืคื™ ืฉื—ื˜ืย ย ื”ื•ืย ย ืžืขื›ืŸ, ืื‘ืœ ืขื›ืŸ ืขืฆืžื• ืœื ืžืฆืื ื• ืœื• ืขื•ืŸ ืื—ืจ ืจืง ืฉืžืขืœ ื‘ื—ืจื ืืžื ื ื‘ืฉืืจ ื”ืžืฆื•ืช ื›ืฉืจ ื”ื™ื”, ื•ืžืฉ"ื› ื‘ื’ืž''ืฉืจ'ืืœืขื ืก"ืœ ืฉืขื‘ืจ ืขื›ืŸ ืขืœ ื”'ื—ื•ืžืฉื™ ืชื•ืจื” ืกื‘ืจืช ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื”ื™ื, ื"ื› ืื™ืŸ ืœืžื“ื™ืŸ ืžื–ื” ืœืžื™ ืฉืžื—ืœืœ ืฉื‘ืช ื‘ืคืจื”ืกื™ื ื•ืขื•ื‘ื“ ืข"ื– ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื›ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื›ืœื” ื•ื”ื•ื” ืœื™ื” ื’ื•ื™ ื’ืžื•ืจ ืื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืขืœื™ื•. ื•ื”ื ื”, ืžืœื‘ื“ ืžื” ืฉื”ืฉื™ื‘ื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• (ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืชืงื ืช ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ืœืจ'ืฆื“ื•ืง ื”ื›ื”ืŸ, ืกื™'ื˜"ื• ืื•ืช ืค"ื’ ื“ื”ืขื™ืจ ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื•ื›ืชื‘ "ื•ืžื” ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื•ื›ื•'ื”ื•ื ื–ืจ ื‘ืขื™ื ื™"), ืœื ื–ื›ื™ืชื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื”ืง'ื›ืœืœ, ื“ื”ื ืืฃ ืื ืจ'ืื‘ื ื‘ืจ ื–ื‘ื“ื (ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืขืœ ื”ืžื™ืžืจื ื“ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื) ืœื ืก"ืœ ื›ืจ'ืื™ืœืขื, ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื‘ื’ืž'ืฉื ืฉืจ'ืื‘ื ื‘ืจ ื–ื‘ื“ื ืก"ืœ ื“ืขื›ืŸ ื‘ืขืœ ื ืขืจื” ื”ืžืื•ืจืกื”, ื•ื"ื› ืฆ"ืข ืžืฉ"ื› ื”ืžื”ืจืฉื“"ื ื“ืœื ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืœื• ืขื•ืŸ ืื—ืจ.ย 
[59]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืขืจื”"ืฉ (ืื‘ื”"ืข ืกื™'ืžื“ ืกืขื™ืฃ ื™"ื) "ื™ืฉ ืžื™ ืฉืื•ืžืจ ื“ื–ื” ืฉืืžืจื ื• ื“ืืคื™ืœื• ื–ืจืขื• ืฉื”ื•ืœื™ื“ ืžืฉื ืฉืชืžื“ ื›ืฉื ื•ืœื“ื• ืžื™ืฉืจืืœื™ืช ืื• ืžื›ื™ื•ืฆื ื‘ื• ื“ื“ื™ื ื ื›ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืื ืงื™ื“ืฉ ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ื• ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ืŸ ื–ื”ื• ืจืง ื‘ืœืื•ื ืกื• ื•ื›ื•'ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืœืจืฆื•ื ื• ืื™ืŸ ืขืœ ื–ืจืขื• ืฉื ื™ืฉืจืืœ [ื‘ืื”"ื˜ ืกืง"ื— ื‘ืฉื ื‘ืŸ ื—ื‘ื™ื‘ ื•ืจืฉื“"ื]ย ื•ืื™ืŸ ืขื™ืงืจ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ื“ื‘ืžื” ื‘ื˜ืœ ืžื”ื ืฉื ื™ืฉืจืืœย ื•ื›ื•'ื•ื™ืฉ ืžื™ ืฉืื•ืžืจ ืขื•ื“ ื“ื‘ืžืฉื•ืžื“ ืขืฆืžื• ื›ืฉืงื™ื“ืฉ ืืฉื” ืื™ืŸ ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ื• ืชื•ืคืกื™ืŸ ืจืง ืžื“ืจื‘ื ืŸ [ืฉื ืกืงื™"ื– ื‘ืฉื ื”ืจื™"ื]ย ื•ืื™ืŸ ืœื–ื” ืฉื•ื ื˜ืขืย ืื ืงื™ื“ืฉ ื‘ืคื ื™ ืขื“ื™ื ื›ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืœืžื” ืœื ื™ืชืคืกื• ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ื• ืžืŸ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื›ืฉื™ื“ืขื” ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฉื•ืžื“ ื•ื›ื•' [ื•ืจืื™ืชื™ ื‘ืจืฉื“"ื ืก"ื™ ื•ืื™ืŸ ื™ืกื•ื“ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื•ื›ื•'."ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื™ืฆื™ื‘ ืฉื (ืื•ืช ื‘':ื˜') ื“ืชืžื” ืขืœื™ื•, "ืื™ืš ืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ื”ืคื•ืกืงื™ื ื”ืืœื• ืฉื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ื‘ืœื ื˜ืขื ื—"ื•."ืื‘ืœ ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ืื’"ืž ื•ื”ืขืจื”"ืฉ ืก"ืœ ื“ืœื ืฉื™ื™ืš ื”ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ืœื™ืฉืจืืœ ืฉื™ืขืฉื” ื‘ื“ื™ืŸ ื ื›ืจื™.
[60]ย ื•ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืืžืจื• ื›ืŸ ื‘ืฉื ืจืฉ"ื™ (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื•"ืช ืจืฉ"ื™ ืกื™'ืงืข"ื”). ื•ื‘ื–ื” ืฉืคื™ืจ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืื’"ืž ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื "ืœ ื“ืœืคื™"ื– ื›ื ืจืื” ื™ืฉ ืกืชื™ืจื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืฉ"ื› ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื• ืœืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ (ื“ืžืฉืžืข ื“ืžืฉ"ื› ื”ื’ืž'"ื“ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ื"ืžื™ื™ืจื™ ื‘ื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืœื ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื”ื™ื—ื™ื“) ืœืžืฉ"ื› ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื•ืื•ืžืจื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืฉืžื•, ื•ืฆ"ืข.
[61]ย ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฉ ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ืžื”ืจ"ืฅ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืจื™ืฉ ื ื–ื™ืจ "ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ื™ื“ืขื ื• ื“ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ืขืœ ื ื–ื™ืจ ืื™ื ื• ืžืจืฉ"ื™ ืจืง ืื™ื–ื” ืชืœืžื•ื“ ื™ื—ืกื• ืœืฉืžื• ื•ืื™ื ื• ืžืžื ื•."
[62]ย ื•ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืค"ื’ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืก"ื— (ื”ื•ื‘ื ื‘ื‘"ืฉ ื•ื—"ืž ืจื™ืฉ ืื”"ืข ืกืขื™ืฃ ื›"ื’) ืฉืื ืžืชื™ื™ืจื ืื“ื ืฉื™ืฆืจื• ืžืชื’ื‘ืจ ืขืœื™ื• ืœื™ื›ืฉืœ ื‘ืื™ืกื•ืจ ื—ืžื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื"ื ืื• ื ื“ื” ืžื•ื˜ื‘ ืœื• ืฉื™ื•ืฆื™ื ื–"ืœ, ื•ื”ืจื™ ืจืื™ื ื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืžืฆื‘ื™ื ืฉืฉื™ื™ืš ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืœืฉืžื”. ื•ื‘ืขืฆื ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื“ืก"ื— ืื ื–ื” ื”ื•ื™ ืจืื™'ื“ืžืฉ"ื› ื‘ื–ื”ืจ ื“ืขื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื–"ืœ ื—ืžื•ืจ ืžื›ืœ ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื‘ืชื•ืจื” (ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื—ื‘ืจ ื‘ืกืขื™ืฃ ื') ื”ื•ื ืœืื• ื“ื•ืงื (ื•ื›ืžืฉ"ื› ื”ื‘"ืฉ ืก"ืง ื'), ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืžืกื‘ืจืย ย ื”ืคืฉื˜ ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื‘ืก"ื— ื”ื•ื ื›ืž"ืฉ ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืขืจื™ื (ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ ื™ื“ ืกื™'ื ') "ื“ืื ื‘ื•ืขืœ ืืฉื” ืืกื•ืจื” ืœื•ย ืขื•ื‘ืจ ื’"ื› ืžืฉื•ื ื”ืฉื—ืชืช ื–ืจืข."ื•ืฆืœ"ืข ืžื” ืฉื›ื ืจืื” ืœื ื ืงื˜ื• ื›ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื. ืขื•ื“ ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ื“ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื™ืฉ ืจืื™'ืžืคื•ืจืฉืช ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืก"ื— ืžื’ืž'ืกื•ื˜ื” ืœ"ื•:, ื•ืžืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืชืžื•ื” ืœื™ ืœืžื” ืœื ื”ื‘ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื ืžื’ืž'ื–ื•, ืขื“ ืฉืžืฆืืชื™ ืืช ืืฉืจ ืื”ื‘ื” ื ืคืฉื™ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื›ื”ืŸ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžืื—ื™ื• ื‘"ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ื" (ืื•ืช ื™'ื‘ื“"ื” ื•ื›ืœ ืคื’ืžื™), ื•ื‘ืจื•ืš ืฉื›ื•ื•ื ืชื™ ืœื“ืขืชื• ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”.
[ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจ'ืฆื“ื•ืง ื‘ื–ื” ื”ื•ื‘ื ืœืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ื™ ืข"ื™
Marc B. Shapiro,ย Changing The Immutable: How Orthodox Judaism Rewrites Its Historyย (Portland, Oregon, 2015), 198 note 35.]
[63]ย ื•ืืฃ ื“ื‘ื–ื” ืื ื™ ื”ื•ืœืš ืจื›ื™ืœ ืžื’ืœื” ืกื•ื“, ืื‘ืœ ื–ื” ื”ื•ื™ ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ืฉื•ื‘ืจื• ื‘ืฆื™ื“ื•, ื“ื‘ืืžืช ืฉืœื ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื• ื”ืจืื•ื™ ืื™ื ื• ืžื•ืชืจ, ื•ื™ืฉืจื™ื ื“ืจื›ื™ ื”'ื•ื›ื•'. ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ื—ืช"ืก ื—"ื ืื•"ื— ืกื™'ืงื "ื“.
[64]ย ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื‘ืื•ืจ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืž"ื˜ ืขืžื•ื“ ืจืž"ื• ืื•ืช ื˜', ื•ื‘ืžืฉ"ื› ื‘ืื•ืจ ื™ืฉืจืืœ (ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื "ื” ืขืžื•ื“ ืจืž"ื˜ - ืจื "ื) ื•ื‘ืžื” ืฉื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื”ืจื‘ ื—ื™ื™ื ืจืคื•ืคื•ืจื˜ ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ (ืขืžื•ื“ ืจื "ื - ืจื "ื’).
See also, Marc B. Shapiro,ย Studies in Maimonides and His Interpretersย (Scranton and London, 2008), 73 - 74.
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byย Marc B. Shapiro
Continued from here.
1. As mentioned, I believe that on occasion ArtScroll is unaware that the text it is explaining is a censored text. Sometimes it might even be an internally censored text (i.e., censored by Jews so as to avoid difficulties with the non-Jewish authorities). This same problem is often found with aharonim. How about with rishonim? For example, was Rashi ever misled by an internally censored text? I would hesitate to say so but this is exactly what is suggested by R. Elijah David Rabinowitz-Teomim (the Aderet), though he piously prefaces his remarks with the wordsย ืœื•ืœื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจืฉ"ื™.
Sanhedrinย 58b states:
Resh Lakish said: A heathen who keeps a day of rest, deserves death, for it is written, โ€œAnd a day and a night they shall not restโ€ (Gen. 8:22), and a master has said: Their prohibition is their death sentence. Ravina said: Even if he rested on a Monday.
The Aderet sees it as obvious (ืคืฉื•ื˜) that the original version of Ravinaโ€™s statement was โ€œEven if he rested on Sunday,โ€ and this was changed to โ€œMondayโ€ due to fear of the Christians.[1]ย Rashi, however, offers an explanation as to why โ€œMondayโ€ is mentioned, meaning that if the Aderet is correct then even Rashi was misled by the altered text.[2]
As part of his explanation on this passage, Rashi also writes:ย ืื—ื“ ื‘ืฉื‘ืช ืฉืฉื•ื‘ืชื™ืŸ ื‘ื• ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื. This is the authentic version of Rashi which appears in the early Talmud printings. It is also found in Steinsaltz and Oz ve-Hadar. The censored Vilna Talmud, followed by ArtScroll, omit the wordย ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื.
Even in the censored Vilna Talmud the wordย ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืย appears inย Taโ€™anitย 27b where we find the following:
Our Rabbis have taught: The men of the Mishmar prayed over the sacrifice of their brethren that it may be favorably accepted, whilst the men of the Ma'amad assembled in their synagogues and observed four fasts, on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday of that week. On Monday [they fasted] for those that go down to the sea; on Tuesday for those who travel in the deserts; on Wednesday that croup may not attack children; on Thursday for pregnant women and nursing mothers, that pregnant women should not suffer a miscarriage, and that nursing mothers may be able to nurse their infants; on Friday they did not fast out of respect for the Sabbath; and certainly not on the Sabbath. Why did they not fast on Sunday? โ€” R. Johanan said: Because of the Christians (ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื). R. Samuel b. Nahmani said: Because it is the third day after the creation of Man. Resh Lakish said: Because of the additional soul. For Resh Lakish said: Man is given an additional soul on Friday, but at the termination of the Sabbath it is taken away from him, as it is said, โ€œHe ceased from work and restedโ€ [shavat va-yinafash], that is to say, once the rest had ceased, woe! that soul is gone.
There is something very strange about this passage, and yet it is not noted in Soncino, ArtScroll, Koren, or by R. Zvi Hirsch Chajes whom I could have expected to pick up on it. I assume that most people read this passage without even realizing the problem, which for the rishonim was not a problem as I will explain. The Sages, in describing what went on in Second Temple days, make clear that the men of the Maโ€™amad did not fast on Sunday. R. Johanan, who lived in third-century Eretz Yisrael, says that this was because of the Christians. Rashi explains that the Christians โ€œmake this day [Sunday] their holiday.โ€[3]ย R. Gershom, in his commentary on the passage, writes that the Christiansโ€™ โ€œholiday is on Sunday and if the Jews would fast they [the Christians] would be angered.โ€[4]
The problem with all this is that in the days of the Second Temple there was no significant Christian community for Jews to be concerned with. Furthermore, these early followers of Jesus would not have observed the Sabbath on Sunday.[5]ย I think the answer to this problem is that the talmudic sages regarded Jesus as a student of R. Joshua ben Perahyah who flourished in the latter part of the second century BCE (i.e., ca. 130-100 BCE). In other words, in the talmudic conception Jesus lived at least a century earlier than the historical record tells us, and the amoraim assumed that the Christianity as they knew it was also practiced centuries before. Robert Travers Herford writes: โ€œR. Johanan transferred to the time of the Temple a feature of the religious life of his own totally different time.โ€[6]ย The predating of Jesusโ€™ life was also shared by the rishonim, which explains why the chronological problem did not trouble them.
Ketubotย 102b states:
If a man died and left a young son with his mother, [and while] the father's heirs demand, โ€˜Let him be brought up with usโ€™, his mother claims, โ€˜My son should be brought up by meโ€™, [the son] must be left with his mother and may not be left with anyone who is entitled to be his heir. Such a case once occurred and [the heirs] killed himย ืขืจ"ื”.
What doesย ืขืจ"ื”ย mean? The first thing to note is that these letters are not part of the original talmudic text. In talmudic manuscripts, the writings of the rishonim, and also the early printed editions in Pesaro and Venice, the uncensored text reads โ€œkilled him on the eve of Passover.โ€[7]ย Because this is the authentic reading, this is how it appears in Steinsaltz, Koren, and Soncino. ArtScroll, however, translates the last words of the passage as โ€œThey butchered him on the first evening of his stay,โ€ readingย ืขืจ"ื”ย asย ืขืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ.
ArtScrollโ€™s action is quite strange, as there is absolutely no question what the authentic reading of the text is. Not only does ArtScroll translate the false acronym, but it even offers an explanation of it. โ€œThey were so eager for his blood that he did not even last a single night with him. They killed him on the evening of his arrival.โ€ This is wildly incorrect as the acronymย ืขืจ"ื”ย is simply a printerโ€™s invention.
ArtScroll continues its explanation as follows:
The wordsย ืขืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ,ย the first evening, are not actually found in theย Baraisa. Rather, theย Baraisaย contains an acronym โ€“ย ืขืจ"ื”ย โ€“ which is read asย ืขืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸย (seeย Rosh; Mesoras HaShas). Another interpretation of this acronym reads it asย ืขืจื‘ ื”ืคืกื—,ย onย Pesach eveย (Meiri; Hagahos Yavetz)
This note also needs to be corrected as there is no dispute among rishonim about how to how to read the acronym, as the acronym did not exist in the days of the rishonim. It is an invention of one of the printed editions. Thus, contrary to what the note states, Meiri never gave an interpretation of the acronym to mean ืขืจื‘ ื”ืคืกื—. Rather, these words were in his text of the Talmud, and they were also in the Roshโ€™s text of theย Talmud and appear in the manuscripts of the Rosh. The printed version of the Rosh has been โ€œcorrectedโ€, just like the text of the Talmud and Rif was โ€œcorrectedโ€.[8]
Why did printed editions of the Talmud begin to use the acronym? This talmudic passage was cited by anti-Semites to support the blood libel, namely, that Jews would kill Christian children before Passover to use their blood.[9]ย Thus, this โ€œcorrectionโ€, like so many others, was designed to undermine anti-Semitic attacks against the Talmud.[10]ย ย ย ย ย ย ย 
Seth Leibowitz called my attention to the Stone Chumash, p. 407, where in the introduction to the Ten Commandments it states:
Rambam (Moreh Nevuchimย II:32) comments that they only heard the first two [commandments] from God, but they could hear only the sound of the Divine voice, as it were, and could not understand the words He was saying. . . . Thus, the people experienced prophecy, for they heard Godโ€™s voice, but their faith in Moses was reinforced, because only he understood what God was saying.
The first thing to note is that the reference shouldย be II:33 not II:32. The passage just quoted states that the people experienced prophecy. Does Maimonides say this?ย Guideย 2:33 is a very difficult chapter and any interpretation given can be challenged with alternative perspectives. (See Yaakov Levinger,ย Ha-Rambam ke-Filosof u-khe-Fosek, ch. 3.) Yet I think I am on safe ground in saying that Maimonidesย does notย believe that what the people as a whole experienced is to be regarded as prophecy. Whileย Guideย 2:33 might be ambiguous in this matter, the previous chapter, 2:32, states explicitly: โ€œAs for the Gathering at Mount Sinai, though through a miracle all the people saw the great fire and heard the frightening and terrifying voices, only those who were fit for it achieved the rank of prophecy, and even those in various degrees.โ€
Shem Tov explains:
ื•ืื—ืจ ืฉืกืœืง ื”ืจื‘ ืืœื• ื”ื˜ืขื™ื•ืช ืืฉืจ ื™ืจืื” ืžื”ื ืฉื”ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ื ื›ืœ ืื™ืฉ ืžื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื, ืกืœืง ืžืขืœื™ื ื• ืกืคืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืขืžื“ ื”ืจ ืกื™ื ื™ ืืฉืจ ืื ืฉื™ื ื•ื ืฉื™ื ืกื›ืœื™ื ื•ื‘ืœืชื™ ืจืื•ื™ื™ื ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื• ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื ื•ื–ื” ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉื”ืฉื ื™ืช'ื™ื ื‘ื ื›ืœ ืžื™ ืฉื™ืจืฆื” ืžื‘ืœืชื™ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื›ืŸ, ื•ืืžืจ ืฉืืฃ ืฉื›ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ื”ืืฉ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื•ืฉื•ืžืขื™ื ื”ืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื ื•ืจืื•ืช ื”ืžืคื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื•ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืขืœ ืฆื“ ื”ืคืœื, ืœื ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืžื“ืจื’ืช ื”ื ื‘ื•ืื” ืืœื ื”ืจืื•ื™ ืœื” ื•ื”ืจืื•ื™ื™ื ื™ืชื—ืœืคื• ืžื“ืจื’ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื’"ื›
Finally, so that all the attention is not on ArtScroll, the following point was called to my attention by Benjamin Apfel. Here is the first page of Jastrowโ€™s introduction to his dictionary. Read the last paragraph.

Here is the first page of Philip Birnbaumโ€™s introduction to his translation of sections of theย Mishneh Torah.[11]
The first paragraph is lifted from Jastrow. Would it have been so difficult for Birnbaum to simply add a note indicating that he was adapting Jastrowโ€™s words?
2. In my postย hereย I referred to selections from Rashbamโ€™s commentary on Psalms that were recently printed from manuscript. This should be distinguished from Rashbamโ€™s commentary on Psalms published in Vienna in 1816 by Isaac Satanow. Here is the title page which tells us that the manuscript comes from the royal library in Berlin.
This commentary on Psalms is a forgery. While the volume is attributed to Rashbam it was actually written by Satanow. Regarding this forgery, David Rosin writes as follows:[12]

ื”ื›ื™ ืงืจื ืฉืžื• ื™ืฆื—ืง ื•ื™ื”ื™ ื›ืฆื—ื•ืง ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื• ืœื”ืชื—ืคืฉ ื‘ืžืขื˜ื” ืจื‘ื ื• ืฉืžื•ืืœ ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืžืขืฉื”ื• ื•ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื•. ื–ืจ ืžืขืฉื”ื• ื•ื ื›ืจื™ื” ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื•, ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื•ืžืข ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœื•

3. In my postย hereย I quoted R. Moses Isaac Ashkenazi in hisย Hoโ€™il Mosheย that King David is not to be regarded as a prophet as he only hadย ruah ha-kodesh. One of the commenters wrote:

Rashi Megilla 14a quotes a Halachot Gedolot which names David as [a] prophet. Rashi speaks specifically about prophets as opposed to Ruach Hakodesh, and excludes Daniel based on Megilla 3a.

ย Another commenter was more strident:

Wonderful example how modern scholars have no place in the Torah world! As first commenter pointed out, Dovid Hamelech is prominent in the list of 48 neviim, and there are scores of sugyos based on the nevuah of DH. The makom mizbeach, etc. Pure AmHaaRatzus!

I am not sure if I am theย am ha-aretzย he is referring to, which in any case would be uncalled for since I never said that David only hadย ruah ha-kodeshย and was therefore not a prophet. All I did was point out that R. Moses Isaac Ashkenazi said this. When I called the commenterโ€™s attention to the fact that his strong words were directed against R. Ashkenazi, he wrote:

I wouldn't start up with Hoil Moshe, but was pointing out the danger of someone reading this post, and then taking it at face value. For anyone fluent in Shas they will find numerous references to DH's nevua. Ruach HaKodesh wouldn't work for all the halachos we learn out from DH. . . . I do thoroughly enjoy your posts, but find them quite dangerous. I would prefer my children at least stick to Artscroll and have their basics โ€“DH's nevua โ€“ straight!

Now let me say something that I did not put in the comments because I want the entire audience to see it, not just the tiny group that reads the comments. The commenter just quoted is a perfect example of one who is certain of something, and certain that the opposing position is incorrect, and this leads to very harsh language. Letโ€™s leave aside R. Moses Isaac Ashkenazi who is not an important scholar. All would agree that R. Moses Sofer, the Hatam Sofer, is important and certainly not anย am haโ€™aretzย (which is the term the commenter used). Yet the Hatam Sofer is explicit that David was not a prophet and only hadย ruah ha-kodesh, which is exactly what R. Ashkenazi states and what the commenter so harshly attacks. Here are the Hatam Soferโ€™s words inย Torat Moshe ha-Shalem,ย Ba-Midbar, p. 74.

ื”ื ื” ืœื ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืœื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžืœืš ืฉื™ื”ื™'ื’ื ื ื‘ื™ื ืžืฉื•ืœื— ืœืขื ื›ื™ ืื ืžืฉื” ืจื‘ื™ื ื• ืข"ื”, ื“ื›ืชื™ื‘ ื’ื‘ื™' (ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืœ"ื’ ื”') ื•ื™ื”ื™ ื‘ื™ืฉื•ืจื•ืŸ ืžืœืš, ืื‘ืœ ืฉืืจื™ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืžืœื›ื™ื ื•ื”ืžืœื›ื™ื ืœื ื”ืชื ื‘ืื•,ย ื•ื“ื•ื“ ื”ืžืœืš ืข"ื” ืจื”"ืง ื”ื•"ืœ ื•ืœื ื ื‘ื•ืื”, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืื—ื–"ืœ (ื’ื™ื˜ื™ืŸ ื "ื˜ ืข"ื) ืžื™ืžื•ืช ืžืฉื” ืขื“ ืจื‘ื™ ืœื ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืชื•ืจื” ื•ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืื—ื“, ื“ืืœื• ื›ืœ ื”ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืขืœื™ื”ื ื‘ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ ื•ื”ืžืœืš ืฉื‘ื™ืžื™ื•, ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžืœื›ื™ื ืืคื™'ื“ื•ื“ ื•ืฉืœืžื” ื”ื™ื• ื”ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื ืฉื‘ื“ื•ืจื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืžื”ื ื‘ืชื•ืจื” . . . ืฉื”ืจื™ ืื™ืŸ ืžืœืš ื ื‘ื™ื.

This notion, that the kings were not prophets (other than Moses), is also stated in Zohar,ย Terumah, p. 154a, and this is presumably the Hatam Soferโ€™s source. I donโ€™t deny that there are other authoritative sources that contradict this, including passages in the Talmud. Some of them are cited by R. Reuven Margaliyot in his note to the Zohar, ad loc., and we can speculate as to why the Hatam Sofer preferred the Zohar over these other sources. I cite this only to show that commenters should be very careful before labeling something asย am haโ€™aratzus, as you never know whom you might be insulting with this comment.

4. The latest book in my series with Academic Studies Press has recently appeared. It is Sara Reguer,ย My Fatherโ€™s Journey: A Memoir of Lost Worlds of Jewish Lithuania. (Reguer is the granddaughter of R. Simcha Zelig Reguer, the dayan of Brisk.) Here is the bookโ€™s description.

Born into a leading Lithuanian-Jewish rabbinic family, Moshe Aron Reguer initially followed the path of traditional yeshiva education. His adolescence coincided with World War I and its upheavals, pandemics, and pogroms, as well as with new ideas of Haskalah, Zionism, and socialism. His memoir, recently discovered and here translated and published for the first time, discusses his internal struggles and describes the world around him and the people who influenced him. Moshe Aron Reguer wrote his memoir at the age of 23, on the eve of his departure for Eretz Israel in 1926. However, his story did not end there, but continued in British Mandated Palestine and the United States. He kept in touch with the family in Brest-Litovsk until the Nazis destroyed Jewish Lithuania, and some of their correspondence is included within this volume.

Anyone who is interested in Jewish Lithuania and the great yeshivot will find this book of value.

I also want to call attention to the recent publication of Menachem Kellner,ย Jewish Universalism, edited by Hava Tirosh-Samuelson and Aaron W. Hughes. Kellnerโ€™s work has made a great impact, not only in Jewish scholarship but among thinking Jews in general. This small volume is a wonderful read and contains an intellectual portrait of Kellner written by James A. Diamond as well as a lengthy interview with Kellner.

This book is number 12 in Brillโ€™s Library of Contemporary Jewish Philosophers. Here is what has appeared so far and what if forthcoming (taken from the Brill website).

Published Volumes

Vol. 1: Eliezer Schweid:ย The Responsibility of Jewish Philosophy
Vol. 2: Jonathan Sacks:ย Universalizing Particularity
Vol. 3: David Novak:ย Natural Law and Revealed Torah
Vol. 4: Eugene B. Borowitz:ย Rethinking God and Ethics
Vol. 5: Elliot N. Dorff:ย In Search of the Good Life
Vol. 6: Judith Plaskow:ย Feminism, Theology, and Justice
Vol. 7: David R. Blumenthal:ย Living with God and Humanity
Vol. 8: Moshe Idel:ย Representing God
Vol. 9: Lenn E. Goodman:ย Judaism, Humanity, and Nature
Vol. 10: Avi Sagi:ย Existentialism, Pluralism, and Identity
Vol. 11: Elliot R. Wolfson:ย Poetic Thinking
Vol. 12: Menachem Kellner:ย Jewish Universalism

Forthcoming Volumes

Vol. 13: J. David Bleich:ย Where Halakhah and Philosophy Meetย (est. October 2015)
Vol. 14: Michael Fishbane:ย Jewish Hermeneutical Theologyย (est. October 2015)
Vol. 15: Norbert M. Samuelson:ย Reasoned Faithย (est. November 2015)
Vol. 16: Arthur Green:ย Hasidism for Tomorrowย (est. January 2016)

5. The issue of truth-telling in halakhic matters, discussed in the last chapter of my new book, has been of interest to many people. I did not want to be too lengthy in my response to Aryeh Frimerย here,ย because it was not my own independent post. So let me now add some more details. DG reminded me of the following source. According to R. Jacob Moellin, when the Talmud states that a law is rabbinic but a verse is brought as anย asmachta, this was done so as to mislead the people into thinking that it is a Torah law so that they would observe it more carefully.[13]ย In other words, the Sages were engaging in falsehood for a higher purpose.

This is exactly the sort of thing that Frimer claimed is not part of mainstream halakhic thought, a point which I disputed. It also is very relevant to my discussion of the dispute between the Hatam Sofer and R. Zvi Hirsch Chajes regarding โ€œraising the prohibitionโ€. Here are the Maharilโ€™s words, as quoted by his student.

ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื›ื ื“ืื™ืชืžืจ ืžื“ืจื‘ื ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื•ืงืจื ืืกืžื›ืชื ื‘ืขืœืžื, ื”ื›ื™ ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื• ื•ื“ืื™ ืชืงื ืชื ื“ืจื‘ื ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื•ื”ื ื™ืฆืื• ื•ื‘ื“ืงื• ื•ืžืฆืื• ืœื”ื ืกืžืš ืžืงืจื, ื•ืกืžื›ื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ืขืœื™ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืงื ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื“ื”ื•ื ืžื“ืื•ืจื™ื™ืชื ื•ื™ื—ืžื™ืจื• ื‘ื•, ื•ืœื ืืชื• ืœื–ืœื–ืœ ื•ืœื”ืงืœ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื—ื›ืžื™ื

In the notes to this text, the editor informs us that one of the manuscripts has a different version. Instead ofย ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืงื ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ืย it readsย ืœื”ื˜ืขื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ื. This text is even more explicit that the Sages were not being honest with the masses. This manuscript has a handwritten note explaining that instead of readingย ืœื”ื˜ืขื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ื•ืชย it should sayย ืœื”ื˜ืขื™ื ืœื‘ืจื™ื•ืชย because the wordย ืœื”ื˜ืขื•ืชย is aย ื“ื‘ืจ ืžื’ื•ื ื”ย . In other words, the person who made this โ€œcorrectionโ€ was troubled by the explicit statement that the Sages would deceive people, even if it was for a higher cause.

If there is one thing people have learnt from my posts over the years, it is that whenever you find a passage that diverges radically from what others think is appropriate, you will find those who deny the passageโ€™s authenticity. In this case, the most prominent of the deniers is R. Joseph Engel[14]:

ืœืขื "ื“ ืœื ืžื™ืกืชื‘ืจื™ ื›ืœืœ ื•ืœื ืืืžื™ืŸ ื›ืœืœ ืฉื™ืฆืื• ืžืคื” ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื”ืžื”ืจื™"ืœ ื–"ืœ

R. Simhah Klein writes[15]:

ื•ื›ื™ ื™ืฉืงืจื• ื—ื–"ืœ ืœื—ื–ืง ื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ืŸ ื“ื”ื•ื ื“ืื•ืจื™ื™ืชื

However, R. Eliyahu Bohbut is not at all bothered by the claim of the Maharil that the Sages engaged in a form of deception vis-ร -vis the masses. After quoting the passage he explains matter-of-factly[16]:

ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ื“ืืกืžื›ืชื ื‘ืื” ื›ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœ "ืœื”ื˜ืขื•ืช"ืืช ื”ืขื ืฉื™ืกื‘ืจื• ื“ืื™ื›ื ืื™ืกื•ืจ ื“ืื•ืจื™ื™ืชื "ื•ื™ื—ืžื™ืจื• ื‘ื•"

Regarding one of the other matters I discussed in the book, namely, so-called โ€œOrthodox historyโ€, the folllowing appears inย Divrei Davidย (p. 30a), a collection of teachings of R. David Moses Friedman, the first Chortkover Rebbe.

ืค"ื ืกื™ืคืจื• ืœืคื ื™ื• ืขืœ ืื™ื–ื” ืžืขืฉื” ืฉืื“ืž"ื•ืจ ืžืจื•ื–ื™ืŸ ื–ื™"ืข ืกื™ืคืจ ืื•ืชื• ืคืขื ื‘ืกื™ื ื’ื•ืŸ ื–ื” ื•ืคืขื ื‘ืกื™ื’ื ื•ืŸ ืื—ืจ ืืžืจ ืขืœ ื–ื” ืžืจืŸ ืื“ืž"ื•ืจ ื–ื™"ืข ืฉื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ ืžืขืฉื™ื•ืช ืฉืžืกืคืจื™ื ื”ืฆื“ื™ืงื™ื ื”ื•ื ืœืคื™ ืžื” ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืฉืขื”

This is an acknowledgment that the stories told by the rebbes are not really history, as they are designed to serve the needs of the present. As I think most people today realize, haredi โ€œhistoricalโ€ writing in general is as much about the present as the past, and it is precisely because of this that authors feel it is legitimate to cover up or even alter the historical record in order to best serve the religious needs of the present.

Finally, a few people have asked about what I wrote on p. 244, that the strand of Jewish tradition that countenances falsehood "deserves to be understood in a sympathetic manner as well". This does not mean that people need to agree with those who countenance falsehood, and I certainly do not. However, in writing an academic study as opposed to a polemic, it is important to recognize that approaches that today we might regard as unacceptable, were viewed very differently in other times and cultures (and for some, these "other times and cultures" continue into our own day). I am interested in understanding what leads people to diverge so dramatically from a value that I regard as important. In my book I did not set out to judge them, but in a sympathetic manner, i.e, with a sensitivity to their worldview, attempt to understand them. (When I used the word "sympathetic", I did not mean that I approved of what I was describing, only that I was sensitive to the motivations behind the approach.) By the same token, when I see that great figures from earlier years have written troubling things about non-Jews or women, I also approach this in a sympathetic manner, understanding that for these people, living in a vastly different time and often suffering under terrible anti-Semitism, it made sense that they would express certain thoughts that today pretty much everyone regards as unacceptable. One need not be a complete historicist to acknowledge that all people are influenced by their era, for good and for bad. This is what I mean by understanding in a sympathetic manner.

Coming Soon: R. Ysoscher Katz and Modern Orthodox Halakhah; The Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Dispute Regarding the Historicity of the Hanukkah Miracle; R. Steinman and the Messianic Belief; R. Mazuz's Short-Lived Entry into Politics; and a response to R. Aharon Lopiansky's article inย Dialogue.




[1]ย See his note inย Mekabtziโ€™elย 36 (2009), p. 64.
[2]ย Was Maimonides ever misled by a censored text? According to R. Eliyahu Zini,ย Eretz Hemdatenu, p. 75, this was indeed the case.ย Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot Avodah Zarahย 9:13 states:

ย ื”ืžื•ื›ืจ ื‘ื™ืชื• ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื” ื“ืžื™ื• ืืกื•ืจื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ื ื™ื™ื” ื•ื™ื•ืœื™ืš ืื•ืชื ืœื™ื ื”ืžืœื—

Asย Kesef Mishnehย and others point out, the origin of this halakhah isย Gittinย 44a. Yet the authentic reading there isย ื”ืžื•ื›ืจ ื‘ื™ืชื• ืœื’ื•ื™ย (the Vilna Talmud hasย ืœืขื•ื‘ื“ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื). Asย Dikdukei Soferim ha-Shalemย (Jerusalem, 2001), ad loc., informs us,ย ืœื’ื•ื™ย is the reading inย allย surviving manuscripts and early printings. Meiri, ad loc., explains the halakhah as follows:

ืฉื”ืžื•ื›ืจ ื‘ื™ืช ืœื’ื•ื™ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืจ"ืœ ืœืื—ื“ ืžืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ื”ืืœื™ืœื™ื ื“ืžื™ื• ืืกื•ืจื™ื ืžืชื•ืจืช ืงื ืก ืขืœ ืฉื ืชืŸ ืœืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ื”ืืœื™ืœื™ื ื—ื ื™ื™ื” ื‘ืงืจืงืข

Since Maimonides had the readingย ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื”, R. Zini concludes that the talmudic manuscript he used had been altered. This is much more compelling than the explanation offered byย Kesef Mishnehย andย Lehem Mishnehย that Maimonides interpretedย ืœื’ื•ื™ย to meanย ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื”.

Yet there is no doubt that R. Zini is incorrect. As has been pointed out by many, one who examines Tosefta,ย Avodah Zarahย 7:2, will see that this, and notย Gittinย 44a, is the source for Maimonides, andย Kesef Mishnehย andย Lehem Mishnehย were simply unaware of this source. It is significant that ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื” appears even in manuscripts of the Tosefta.ย 

Regarding Tosefta,ย Avodah Zarahย 7:2 andย Gittinย 44a, I assume that only one of the versions preserves the authentic text, but I donโ€™t think we can determine which one it is. The only thing that remains to be explained is why Maimonides did not codify the halakhah inย Gittinย 44a. (It could be that his version ofย Gittinย 44a was indeed the same as that which appears in the Tosefta, but this has nothing to do with censorship.)
[3]ย Kesef Mishneh, Hilkhot Melakhimย 10:9, cites Rashi. You can see the uncensored text ofย Kesef Mishnehย in the Frankel edition. The version ofย Kesef Mishnehย that appears in older editions of theย Mishneh Torahย is a censored text, and instead of recording Rashiโ€™s statement about Sunday, the following appears:ย ืื• ื‘ืข"ืฉ ืฉืฉื•ื‘ืชื™ื ื‘ื• ื”ื™ืฉืžืขืœื™ื. For printers in the Christian world there was no problem speaking about Muslim beliefs and practices, so in this case the original statement, made with reference to Christians, was substituted with one referring to Muslims. The printers who made this โ€œcorrectionโ€ had the same misconception as many today, namely, that Friday is a day of rest for Muslims. It is not. Friday is a day of gathering for prayer, but Muslims do not have a sabbath, i.e., a day of rest.
[4]ย Interestingly, I found an anonymous medieval Italian text that records a โ€œminhag tovโ€ not to eat meat on Sunday. One reason offered isย kevod Shabbat, namely, by having meat so soon after Shabbat one lessens the special nature of this day in which meat is the main dish. (Obviously, meat was not regarded as an everyday meal in this authorโ€™s time and place.) The second reason isย ืžืคื ื™ ืงืœื•ืŸ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื. What this means is that since Sunday is the Christiansโ€™ holy day, Jews should avoid eating a special food like meat on that day. Seeย Minhag Tov, ed. Weiss (Budapest, 1929), p. 230, no. 47.
[5]ย See Reuven Kimelman, โ€œBirkat ha-Minimย and the Lack of Evidence for an Anti-Christian Jewish Prayer in Late Antiquity,โ€ in E. P. Sanders, et al., eds.,ย Jewish and Christian Self-Definitionย (Philadelphia, 1981), vol. 2, p. 242.
[6]ย Christianity in Talmud and Midrashย (London, 1903), p. 172. His first name โ€œRobertโ€ never appears in his works, as he went by โ€œR. Travers Herfordโ€. I supplied the first name in full as I did not want people to assume that we are dealing with โ€œRabbi Travers Herfordโ€. Herford wrote a number of works about the Pharisees. His positive portrayal of them was in opposition to the standard Christian view. This highly impressed R. Zvi Yehudah Kook, who suggested translating Herfordโ€™s works into Hebrew. See his letterย hereย where he writes:

ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืื– ืœื”ืขื™ืจื• ืข"ื“ ืกืคืจื™ื• ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื›ื ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ ื”ืจืคื•ืจื“, โ€“ ื”ื™ื•ื“ืข ื•ืื•ื”ื‘ ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื ืคืœื, โ€“ย  ืข"ื“ ืชื•ืจืช ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื”ืคืจื•ืฉื™ืช ื•ืขืจื›ื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™, ื›ื”ืžืฉื›ื” ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื ื‘ื•ืื” ื‘ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืชื”ย ื”ื ืžืฉื›ืช ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื. ื›ื“ืื™ ื•ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืžืื“ ื”ื™ื” ืœืชืจื’ืžื ืœืขื‘ืจื™ืช, ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ื ื•ืขืจ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ืžืชื—ืฉื‘ ืžืื“ ืขื ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืฉืœ ื’ื•ื™, ื•ื‘ื™ื—ื•ื“ ืœืขื•ืžืช ื”ืจื‘ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ืชืจื’ื•ืžื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืชืคืœื•ืช, ืฉื–ื›ื• ื•ืžื–ื›ื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืืช ืกืคืจื•ืชื ื• ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”. ืื•ืœื™ ื™ื•ืื™ืœ ื›'ืœื–ื›ื•ืช ื‘ืžืฆื•ื” ื–ื• ื‘ื”ืชืžื—ื•ืช ื–ืจื™ื–ื•ืชื• ื•ืฉืงื™ื“ืชื•

Herfordโ€™s commentary onย Pirkei Avotย is full of interesting points. To give one example, he argues that the proper vocalization ofย ืืžืจื•ย ย inย Avotย 1:5:ย ื‘ืืฉืชื• ืืžืจื• ืงืœ ื•ื—ื•ืžืจ ื‘ืืฉืช ื—ื‘ื™ืจื•, isย amaro, notย amru. (R. Mazuz told me that this is definitely incorrect.)
[7]ย Seeย Dikdukei Soferim ha-Shalem, ad loc., Saul Lieberman,ย Tosefta ki-Feshutah, Ketubot, p. 365.
[8]ย See R. Yonatan Binyamin Buchinger inย Or Yisraelย 46 (Tevet 5767), pp. 237ff., ibid. 48 (Tamuz 5767), pp. 240-241, ibid. 51 (Adar Sheni 5768), p. 246. The authentic text of the Rif, which readsย ืขืจื‘ ื”ืคืกื—, is found in the Constantinople 1509 edition. Seeย Hilkhot Rav Alfas, ed. Zaks (Jerusalem, 1969), vol. 2, p. 128.
[9]ย See Ariel Toaff,ย Blood Passoverย (available online) ch. 8 n. 8. (Unfortunately, this book continues to give ammunition to anti-Semites.)
[10]ย See F. H. Wettstein,ย Halifat Mikhtavimย (Cracow, 1900), p. 97; R. Dovid Cohen,ย He-Akov le-Mishorย (Brooklyn, 1993), toย Ketubotย 102b (p. 106); Soncinoโ€™s note,ย Ketubotย 102b.
[11]ย Maimonidesโ€™ Mishneh Torahย (New York, 1967).
[12]ย Introduction to his edition of Rashbam on the Pentateuch, p. xix. See also Reuven Elitzur,ย Degel Mahaneh Reuvenย (n.p., n.d.), pp. 365ff. Not knowing who Satanow was, R. Yisrael Yaakov Fisher of the Edah Haredit refers to him asย ืจ'ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžืกื˜ื ื•ื‘ ื–"ืœ. Seeย Even Yisrael, vol. 8, no. 9. I found the same lack of awareness in R. Aryeh Leib Neimark,ย Even Yaakovย (Slutzk, 1910), p. 57b:ย ื™ืคื” ืคื™ืจืฉ ื”ื—ื›ื ืžื”ืจ"ื™ ืกืื˜ื ืื‘
[13]ย Sefer Maharil, ed. Spitzer (Jerusalem, 1989),ย Likutim, no. 70 (p. 629).
[14]ย Beit ha-Otzar, vol. 1,ย kelalย 190 (p. 118b).
[15]ย Peleitat Soferimย 2 (2012), p. 87 n. 7.
[16]ย Shoshanat ha-Amakimย (Jerusalem, 2008), p. 257.
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Lithuanian Government Announces Construction of a $25,000,000 Convention Center in the Center of Vilnaโ€™s Oldest Jewish Cemetery

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Lithuanian Government Announces
Construction of a $25,000,000 Convention Center
in the Center of Vilnaโ€™s Oldest Jewish Cemetery

by Sid Leiman
According to Russian statistics, Vilna had close to 200,000 inhabitants just prior to World War I, roughly forty percent of whom were Jewish, more than thirty percent were Polish, and about twenty percent were Russian and the rest consisted of small Lithuanian, Byelorussian, German and Tartar minorities.[1]ย 
In 1919, the Paris Peace Conference was convened by the winning parties of World War I. Its purpose was to map the future of postwar Europe. When the status of Vilna came up for discussion, the Lithuanians claimed Vilnius as the rightful historical capital of independent Lithuania; the Poles rejected such claims on the basis of the cultural and linguistic affinities of Wilno to Poland. The Soviet regime, in diplomatic isolation, voiced its opinion that although Vilna had been part of Russia, the Bolsheviks were ready to share it with the oppressed peoples (mostly peasants) of Lithuanian and Byelorussian origins. Nobody asked or wanted to hear what Vilna meant to the Jews.[2]

I. Prologue.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  In the summer of 1935, the municipal authorities of Vilna, then under Polish rule, announced that a sports stadium would be constructed on the site of Vilnaโ€™s oldest Jewish cemetery.[3]ย At the time, the graves and tombstones of such greats as R. Menahem Mannes Chajes (d. 1636), one of Vilnaโ€™s earliest Chief Rabbis; R. Moshe Rivkes (d. 1671), author of Beโ€™er Ha-Golah, a classic commentary on the Shulhan Arukh; R. Shlomo Zalman (d. 1788), younger brother of R. Hayyim of Volozhin and a favorite disciple of the Gaon of Vilna; R. Elijah b. Solomon (d. 1797), the Gaon of Vilna; and R. Abraham Danzig (d. 1820), author of Hayye Adam, a digest of practical Jewish law, stood in all their glory together with several thousand graves of all the Jewish men, women and children who had lived and died in Vilna between the years of 1592 and 1831.[4]


Tombstone Inscription of R. Menahem Mannes Chajes (d. 1636), embedded in the wall at the extreme left, in the Old Jewish Cemetery.



Tomb of R. Shlomo Zalman (d. 1788), younger brother of R. Hayyim of Volozhin, in the Old Jewish Cemetery.



Tomb of R. Elijah b. Solomon (d. 1797), the Gaon of Vilna, top right, in the Old Jewish Cemetery.



Grave and Tombstone Inscription of R. Abraham Danzig (d. 1820), center, in the Old Jewish Cemetery.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  R. Chaim Ozer Grodzenski, spiritual leader of Vilna Jewry, as well as the leading Torah authority of his generation, interceded on behalf of Vilna and worldwide Jewry. He made it clear than no such desecration of a Jewish cemetery would be tolerated by the Jewish community. When the municipal authorities informed him that under the laws that applied at the time any cemetery not in use for one hundred years or more (the old Jewish cemetery was closed in 1831 due to lack of space) could be demolished by government decision, R. Chaim Ozer was adamant and informed the authorities that Jewish law prohibits the desecration of any Jewish cemetery, whether or not presently in use. Moreover, R. Chaim Ozer informed the authorities that the Jewish community would not comply in any way with the immoral demands of the municipal government.ย  An attempt at a compromise was then made by the authorities; they were prepared to allow the section where the famous rabbis were buried to remain standing, so long as the Jewish community would agree to allow the government to demolish the remainder of the cemetery โ€“ where ordinary folk, i.e., men, women, and children were buried. R. Chaim Ozer ruled out any such compromise solution and, instead, engaged in a tireless, worldwide lobbying campaign, in an effort to persuade the government officials to rescind their decree.[5]



R. Chaim Ozer Grodzenski (in 1939).

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  When some rabbis in Palestine โ€“ sensing the gravity of the situation โ€“ issued a broadside calling for the grave of the Gaon of Vilna to be exhumed so that his remains could be transferred to the Holy Land, R. Chaim Ozer was livid. For, explained R. Chaim Ozer, by acquiescing to the exhumation and transfer of famous rabbis, one in effect consigns the rest of the cemetery to mass destruction. Moreover, it sets a precedent for all governments in Europe โ€“ just transfer the famous rabbis out of the Jewish cemetery and the Jews will agree to abandon the remainder of the cemetery.[6]ย The upshot of R. Chaim Ozerโ€™s wisdom and intransigence was that under his watch,ย no sports stadium was constructed on the old Jewish cemetery.[7]ย R. Chaim Ozer died on August 9 [= 5 Av], 1940.[8]ย Vilna, and arguably world Jewry, would never again have a leader who so deftly and gracefully combined within himself mastery of Torah, practical wisdom, and an unswerving commitment to the dissemination and protection of Jewish values โ€“ with profound and unstinting loyalty to his people, both living and deceased โ€“ under any and all circumstances.ย 

II. Statement of Faina Kukliansky, Chairperson of the Lithuanian Jewish Community, Vilnius, August 15, 2015:[9]
Despite a Jerusalem Post story that would suggest otherwise (โ€œAnger Flares Over Lithuanian Sports Palace,โ€ Sam Sokol, 8/11/2015) there is today a remarkable consensus in Vilnius that the site of the former Snipiskes Cemetery and the graves beneath must be protected. On this matter, the government of Lithuania, the Lithuanian Jewish community which I chair, and the Committee for the Preservation of Jewish Cemeteries in Europe (CPJCE), which is Europeโ€™s foremost halachic authority on cemeteries, all agree.

Attention is now focused on the abandoned former Soviet Sports Palace, which partially sits on the cemetery grounds and in its current condition is mostly a gathering place for graffiti artists and alcoholics. The government rightly wants to remove the building and turn it into a center for conferences and cultural events. Because the building itself has been designated an architectural heritage site, no significant structural changes are possible, but the interior will be renovated. The surrounding area will be maintained as a memorial park with inscriptions that describe some of the most famous people who were buried there.ย 
The Lithuanian government and the CPJCE have an agreement dating to 2009, concerning the cemetery site. Even though we are only in a planning stage and still months away from any construction, recent discussions between the two have worked out an understanding for dealing with the renovation of the former Sports Palace. The CPJCE will provide rabbinic oversight and ensure that there are no halachic violations in the course of the work that takes place. The government has further agreed to limit the type of activities that will take place in the renovated center so that they are in keeping with the special nature of the site.ย 
If anything, this should be a cause for celebration and a model for how other governments in our part of the world should deal with similar challenges of respecting and protecting Jewish cemeteries and the mass graves of Holocaust victims.ย 
So what accounts for the โ€œangry voicesโ€ in your story and the outrageous claims that a โ€œdesecrationโ€ is taking place?
No doubt some of those quoted are simply uninformed, and this fuller explanation will assuage their concerns. But sadly there are others who do know better but are using this issue to advance their own personal feuds and grievances. Some of them are rivals to the CPJCE, and while they would never publicly criticize its eminent Chairman, Rabbi Elyakim Schlesinger, they pretend not to know his involvement here. Perhaps even more destructive is the role being played by our communityโ€™s former rabbi, Chaim Burstein. His contract was recently terminated โ€“ he has spent more days abroad on his personal business than serving our Jews here in Lithuania โ€“ and so he is spreading these stories in order to attack me. It pains me to say these things, but your readers should know the truth.ย 
As a proud Litvak who has the honor to chair a small but resilient Jewish community I have been part of many difficult struggles during these past decades as we have pressed the Lithuanian government to return former Jewish property and pressed the Lithuanian people to squarely confront the history of our Holocaust-era past. Those struggles are not over, but we have had much success. How ironic that as we now have Lithuanian leaders who are prepared to see clearly what happened in the past, we have fellow Jews who refuse to see clearly what is happening today.
Faina Kukliansky
III. Response to the Chairperson of the Lithuanian Jewish Community:

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  On August 15, 2015, Faina Kukliansky, Chairperson of the Lithuanian Jewish Community, issued a statement regarding the planned $25,000,000 Convention Center to be constructed by the Lithuanian government, and funded in large part by the European Unionโ€™s Structural Funds Program, in the center of Vilniusโ€™ oldest Jewish cemetery โ€“ in use from the 16th through the 19thcenturies โ€“ in the Shnipishkes (Yiddish: Shnipishok) section of Vilnius.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  In the opening paragraph of the statement, Faina Kukliansky assures all concerned โ€œthat the site of the former Snipiskes cemetery and the graves beneath must be protected.โ€ Her assurance, however, rings hollow, for as one reads on, it becomes apparent that she fully supports the idea of a Convention Center being constructed over the remains of the Jews buried in the cemetery.[10]

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Ms. Kukliansky writes about the โ€œabandoned former Soviet Sports Palace, which partially sits on the cemetery grounds.โ€ One gets the impression that perhaps an annex to the Soviet-era Sports Palace, or its outer wall, sits on the cemetery grounds. In fact, the Soviet-era Sports Palace sits squarely in the very center of the old Jewish cemetery.[11]



Soviet-Era Sports Palace in Vilna, as it looks today, in the Old Jewish Cemetery.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Ms. Kukliansky continues: โ€œBecause the building [i.e., the Soviet-era Sports Palace] itself has been designated an architectural heritage site, no changes are possible.โ€ Really? It was in the Soviet period that all the tombstones were systematically removed from the cemetery between 1948 and 1955, and it was in the Soviet period that a Sports Palace was constructed over the dead bodies of thousands of Vilnius Jews.[12]ย Now who was it that designated the Soviet Sports Palace an architectural heritage site? If it was the Soviets, what has this to do with Independent Lithuania? If, however, it was Independent Lithuania that made this designation, then rectification is long overdue. Indeed, the government of Lithuania should recognize the Shnipishkes Jewish cemetery as a heritage site of the Jewish community of Vilnius from the 16th through the 19thcenturies. It should certainly not condone and perpetuate the Soviet desecration of a Jewish cemetery. That the EU supports such misuse of funds is nothing short of scandalous. Surely, there is ample room in and around Vilnius for the construction of a Convention Center someplace other than smack in the center of historically, the single most important Jewish cemetery in Lithuania and one of the most important in all of Europe.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Ms. Kukliansky labels those who disagree with her as โ€œsimply uninformedโ€ or having a particular axe to grind. She does not entertain the possibility that building a Convention Center over a Jewish cemetery is not everybodyโ€™s cup of tea. Iโ€™m afraid it is Ms. Kukliansky who seems to be unaware of how many thousands of graves remain on the site, ofย  how often bones have surfaced in recent years on the face of the cemetery,[13]ย and how despite prior agreements with the Lithuanian authorities, two entire buildings were constructed in recent years on the cemetery grounds.[14]ย Does she really believe โ€“ as she claims โ€“ that the construction of a $25,000,000 Convention Center will involve no excavation outside the present perimeters of the Soviet-era Sports Palace? Does she really believe โ€“ as she claims โ€“ that the type of activities that will take place in the renovated center will be in keeping with the special nature of the site? I wonder who is โ€œsimply uninformed.โ€ย 

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  ย Faina Kukliansky writes: โ€œIf anything, this should be a cause for celebration and a model for how governments in our part of the world should deal with similar challenges of respecting and protecting Jewish cemeteries and mass graves of Holocaust victims.โ€

Nations of Eastern Europe take note! If you want to deal with respecting and protecting Jewish cemeteries, learn from the Vilnius experience. First remove and destroy all Jewish tombstones, and afterwards excavate wherever possible and destroy the remains of those who were buried there. Then build a Sports Palace or a Convention Center in the heart of the Jewish cemetery! Make certain that the new structures are designated architectural heritage sites, so that they cannot be dismantled. This should be followed by a celebration of how Jewish cemeteries have been respected and protected in the most proper fashion.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Faina Kukliansky is to be congratulated for assuming the responsibility of leading a โ€œsmall but resilient Jewish community.โ€ Sadly, she makes no mention of the fact that heartfelt and pained voices have been raised by a number of distinguished members of her small community, voicing strong opposition to the construction of the Convention Center in the Jewish cemetery.[15]ย But there is another issue here. Faina Kukliansky is much too modest in thinking that the โ€œsmall and resilient Jewish communityโ€ of Vilnius is her only constituency. The Vilnius Jewish cemeteries belong not only to Vilnius and its Jewish community. The spiritual, as well as the genetic, descendants of the thousands of men and women buried in the Shnipishkes and Zaretcha Jewish cemeteries live the world over. They remember their ancestors, study their writings, often live by their teachings, and should have the right to pray at their graves in a cemetery not desecrated by a Convention Center.

Faina Kukliansky would do well to weigh carefully the consequences of the precedent she is setting. By lending her support to the construction of a Convention Center over the old Jewish cemetery, she places in jeopardy every Jewish cemetery in Europe and, perhaps, elsewhere as well. True, she claims that she relies on a rabbinic ruling issued by the CPJCE in London. Distinguished rabbis the world over, however, have raised their voices in unison against the construction of a Convention Center in the old Jewish cemetery, rendering the London opinion โ€“ at best โ€“ a minority one. These voices include the leading halakhic authorities in Israel[16]ย and the United States,[17]ย and the present heads of the great yeshivot that once graced Lithuania, which due to the Holocaust and Soviet repression had to resettle elsewhere.[18]ย Faina Kukliansky would also do well to remember the voice raised long ago by her pre-World War II predecessor in Vilna, Rabbi Chaim Ozer Grodzenski. He did not allow the Polish government to desecrate the very Jewish cemetery that is about to be desecrated by the Lithuanian government with her approval.

Sid Leiman
Professor Emeritus of Jewish History and Literature
Brooklyn College

September 13, 2015
Erev Rosh Ha-Shanah 5776


Notes:
[1]ย Laimonas Briedis, Vilnius: City of Strangers (Vilnius, 2009), p. 168.
[2]ย Briedis, op. cit., p. 195. [The Briedis quotes have been slightly edited by me for the sake of clarity. -SL]
[3]ย See Yaakov Kosovsky-Shahor, ed., ืื’ืจื•ืช ืจ'ื—ื™ื™ื ืขื•ื–ืจ (Bnei Brak, 2000), vol. 1, pp. 400-401. Cf. Dov Eliach, ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ (Jerusalem, 2002), vol. 3, p. 1142. See also the brief notice in Israel Klausner,ย 
ื•ื™ืœื ื ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื“ืœื™ื˜ื: ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื (Tel-Aviv, 1983), vol. 2, p. 554.
[4]ย For a concise history of the old Jewish cemetery in Vilna, see Israel Klausner, ืงื•ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืขืœืžื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืฉืŸ ื‘ื•ื™ืœื ื”(Vilna, 1935).
[5]ย In general, see Kosovsky-Shahor, op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 400-405.
[6]ย Kosovsky-Shahor, op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 402-403.
[7]ย A soccer field, just north of the old Jewish cemetery, was initiated in 1936 and eventually became Zalgiris Stadium when construction was completed by the Soviets in 1950. See Antanas Papshys, Vilnius: A Guide (Moscow, 1980), p. 127. It is still in use in Vilnius.
[8]ย For a moving account of his funeral, see Yosef Friedlander, โ€œThe Day Vilna Died,โ€ Tradition 37:2 (2003), pp. 88-92.
[9]ย Faina Kuklianskyโ€™s statement was translated from Lithuanian into English and posted on August 15, 2015 on the Lithuanian Jewish Community website here. For the full context of the โ€œConvention Center on the Old Jewish Cemeteryโ€ controversy, and for a comprehensive paper trail of statements made by Faina Kukliansky and the various parties involved in the controversy to date, see here. This site exists due to the incredible industry of the indefatigable Professor Dovid Katz of Vilnius, who also has prepared a register of all public voices that have been raised in opposition to the proposed construction of a Convention Center on the old Jewish cemetery, available here.
[10]ย One suspects that Ms. Kukliansky distinguishes between the land under the former Soviet-era Sports Palace (which, due to the excavations necessary for its construction, presumably led to the disposal of all Jewish remains that had been buried there) and the land surrounding the former Soviet-era Sports Palace (which presumably retains the remains of all those Jews who had been buried there). Thus, she feels comfortable with the construction of a Convention Center over the former Soviet-era Sports Palace. In terms of Jewish law, however, such a distinction is meaningless. Once a Jewish cemetery is consecrated it becomes a hallowed place, much like a synagogue. Like a synagogue, it cannot be used for secular purposes and it may not be desecrated in any way. And like a synagogue, it retains its sanctity whether or not Jews are actually present at any specific time or on a specific day. The Jewish cemetery remains hallowed in its entirety, even if all the remains have been removed from it; how much more so if remains are strewn throughout the cemetery! On the hallowed status of a Jewish cemetery, see, e.g., R. Jacob Moellin (d. 1427), ืกืคืจ ืžื”ืจื™"ืœ: ืžื ื”ื’ื™ื (Jerusalem, 1989), laws of fasting, p. 270; R. Elijah Shapira,ย ืืœื™ื”ื• ืจื‘ื” ืขืœ ืกืคืจื™ ื”ืœื‘ื•ืฉื™ื, to ืฉืœื—ืŸ ืขืจื•ืš ืื•ืจื— ื—ื™ื™ื 581:4, note 39; and R. Judah Ashkenazi (d. circa 1742), ื‘ืืจ ื”ื™ื˜ื‘, and R. Samuel Kolin (d. 1806), ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืฉืงืœ, to ืฉืœื—ืŸ ืขืจื•ืš ืื•ืจื— ื—ื™ื™ื 581:4. In all the passages just cited, every Jewish cemetery is described as a ืžืงื•ื ืงื“ื•ืฉ, i.e. a holy placeโ€“ which is precisely why Jewish cemeteries are designated as places appropriate for prayer. When a municipal office building, or an apartment house, or a convention center is constructed on a Jewish cemetery, it as an act of desecration. Ms. Kukliansky seems upset about โ€œthe outrageous claims that a desecration is taking place.โ€ The claims are hardly outrageous; it is the desecration that is taking place that is outrageous.

That a Jewish cemetery retains its hallowed status even if some or all the remains are removed from it and buried elsewhere is an official ruling of many rabbis, including R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach (d. 1995), one of the greatest halakhic decisors of modern times. Atย ืฉื•"ืช ืžื ื—ืช ืฉืœืžื” (Jerusalem, 1999), vol. 2, responsum 88, p. 338, he rules unequivocally: โ€œA Jewish cemetery, even if should happen that its remains have been exhumed, remains prohibited [for secular use, or for being sold to a second party], and always retains its character as a Jewish cemetery.โ€ Cf. R. Moshe Feinstein,ืื’ืจื•ืช ืžืฉื”: ื™ื•ืจื” ื“ืขื” ื—ืœืง ื’ (New York, 1982), responsum 151, pp. 418-419.
[11]ย This can be seen by examining maps of the Jewish cemetery prepared during the last 200 years, as well as detailed photographs of the Jewish cemetery taken in the last 100 years. Even U.S. intelligence reports released by Wikileaks concede that โ€œthe Sports Palace property indisputably rests in the middle of the former cemetery.โ€ See here.ย 
[12]ย The Soviet-built Sports Palace, used primarily for volleyball and basketball games, was opened in 1971 and remained in use in Independent Lithuania until 2004.
[13]ย The evidence here is shocking indeed. See, e.g., Binyomin Rabinowitz, โ€œCan Anything Be Done to Save the Remnants of Vilnaโ€™s Old Jewish Cemetery,โ€ Deiโ€™ah VeDibur (August 31, 2005), pp. 1-9, available online here.
[14] See, e.g., the Wikipedia entry on โ€œJewish Cemeteries of Vilniusโ€: โ€œThe Palace of Concerts and Sports (Lithuanian: Koncertลณ ir sporto rลซmai) was built in 1971 right in the middle of the former cemetery. In 2005, apartment and office buildings were built at the site.โ€ (here).
[15]ย See, e.g., Ruta (Reyzke) Bloshteinโ€™s stirring plea to the Lithuanian government online here.
[16]ย E.g, Rabbi Samuel Auerbach of Jerusalem, son and successor of R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach.
[17]ย The list is much too long to be included here. Suffice to mention: Rabbi David Feinstein (head of Mesivta Tiferet Jerusalem), Rabbi Aharon Feldman (head of Ner Israel Rabbinical College), Rabbi Shmuel Kamenetsky (head of Talmudical Yeshiva of Philadelphia), and Rabbi Aaron M. Schechter (head of Mesivta Chaim Berlin). ย 
[18]ย These include Rabbi Chaim Dov Heller, head of the Telz Yeshiva, formerly in Telshiai, Lithuania; Rabbi Osher Kalmanowitz, head of the Mirrer yeshiva, formerly in Mir, Greater Lithuania (today in Belarus); and Rabbi Aryeh Malkiel Kotler, head of the Beth Medrash Govoha in Lakewood, formerly in Kleck and Sluck, Greater Lithuania (today in Belarus).
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ืขืœ ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ื”ื“ืคืกื•ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“

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ื”ืจื‘ ื‘ืจื•ืš ืื‘ืขืจืœืื ื“ืขืจ
ืื‘"ื“ ื”ื‘ื“"ืฆ ื“ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื—ืจื“ื™ื ื“ื‘ื•ื“ืืคืขืกื˜
ื•ืจื‘ ื“ืงื”ื™ืœืช ื—ื‘ืจื” ืฉ"ืก โ€“ ืœื™ื•ื‘ืื•ื•ื™ื˜ืฉ

ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืœืจืฉื™ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ืคื™ืขื” ื‘'ืกืคืจื™ื-ื‘ืœื•ื’'ืื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื”ื ื ื™ ืžืคืจืกื ื›ืืŸ ืžืชื•ืš ืžื” ืฉืจืฉืžืชื™ ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ.

ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื‘ืชืœืžื•ื“ ืžืื– 'ื“ืคื•ืก ื‘ืืกื™ืœื™ืื”'
ืœืคื ื™ ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœืืจื‘ืข ืžืื•ืช ื•ื—ืžืฉื™ื ืฉื ื”, ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ"ื—-ืฉืž"ื, ื ื“ืคืกื” ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“ ื”ื‘ื‘ืœื™ ื‘ืขื™ืจ ื‘ื–ืœ ืฉื‘ืฉื•ืฆืจื™ื”. ืฉ"ืก ื–ื” ื™ื“ื•ืข ื‘ืฉื 'ื“ืคื•ืก ื‘ืืกื™ืœื™ืื”'ืฉืœ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ืืžื‘ืจื•ืกื™ืื• ืคืจื•ื‘ื™ืื ื•. ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื” ื–ื• ื ื“ืคืกื” ืขืœ-ืคื™ ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจ ืžืืจืงื• ืžืืจื™ื ื•, ื•ื–ื” ื”ืฉื—ื™ืช ืืช ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืžืกื›ืชื•ืช ื‘ืžืื•ืช ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช. ืžืกื›ืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื” ืœื ื”ื“ืคื™ืกื• ื›ืœืœ โ€“ ื•ื”ื˜ืขื ืžื•ื‘ืŸ. ื”ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ื ืžืฉื›ื• ืื—ืจื™ ื“ืคื•ืก ื–ื• ื‘ืœื™ ืœืชืงืŸ ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื•ืœื”ืฉืœื™ื ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ืฉื ืขืฉื• ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”.
ืืžื ื ืงื™ื™ื ืกืคืจ 'ื—ืกืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉ"ืก'[1], "ื•ื”ื•ื ืกืคืจ ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื›ื•ืœืœ ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื—ืกืจื™ื ื‘ืชืœืžื•ื“ ื‘ื‘ืœื™ ื•ืจืฉ"ื™ ื•ืชื•ืกืคื•ืช ื•ืจื"ืฉ ื•ื”ื’"ื ื•ืคื™'ื”ืžืฉื ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ืจืžื‘"ื... ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืฉืœืžืช ื”ื—ืกืจื•ืŸ ื—ื“ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื—"ื ืžื”ืจืฉ"ื...". ื‘ื”ืกื›ืžืชื• ืœืกืคืจ ื›ื•ืชื‘ ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ื‘ืขืœ 'ื”ื›ืชื‘ ื•ื”ืงื‘ืœื”': "ืื™ืฉ ื ื‘ื•ืŸ ื“ืขืช ื™ืฉืชื“ืœ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืœืื•ืจ ื”ืขื•ืœื ืืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื ืงืจื ื‘ืฉื 'ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช', ื•ื›ืœ ืื™ืฉ ืžืฉื›ื™ืœ ื™ื•ื“ืข ื”ืชื•ืขืœืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ืœ ื™ืฉื›ื—ื• ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื™ืžื™ื, ื•ืžื”ืจืื•ื™ ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ื™ืžื™ืŸ ืขื–ืจืชื• ื•ืœืกื™ื™ืขื• ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืžื—ืฉื‘ืชื• ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืžืŸ ื”ื›ื— ืืœ ื”ืคื•ืขืœ".

ื”ืœื›ื” ืฉืœืžื“ ื”ื’ืจ"ืž ืคื™ื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืชื•ืคืขืช ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”
ืคืกืง ื”ืžื”ืจืฉ"ืœ ื‘'ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉืœืžื”' (ื‘ื‘ื ืงืžื ืค"ื“ ืกื™'ื˜, ืข"ืค ื’ืžืจื ืฉื ืœื—, ื ื•ืชื•ื“"ื” ืงืจืื•), ืฉืื ืฉืืœื• ื’ื•ื™ ืขืœ ื“ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ื™ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื•ืื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื™ืฉืžื˜ ืžืžื ื•, ื•ืื ื™ืืžืจ ืœื• ืืช ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื‘ื•ื ืœื™ื“ื™ ืกื›ื ื”, ืืกื•ืจ ืœื• ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ื“ื™ืŸ, ืฉื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื•ื“ื‘ืจ ืžืŸ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื ืงืจื ืชื•ืจืช ื”ืฉื, ื•ืื ื”ื•ื ืžืฉื ื” ืžืคื˜ื•ืจ ืœื—ื™ื•ื‘ ื•ื›ื™ื•ืฆื ื‘ื–ื” ื”ืจื™ื”ื• ื›ื›ื•ืคืจ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืชื•ืจื”, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืžืกื•ืจ ื ืคืฉื• ืขืœ ื–ื”, ืขื™ื™"ืฉ ื‘ืืจื™ื›ื•ืช. (ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื”ืจืฉ"ืœ ื ืขืชืงื• ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื•ื›ืŸ ื‘'ืื ืฆื™ืงืœื•ืคื“ื™ื” ืชืœืžื•ื“ื™ืช'ื›ืจืš ื›ื‘ ืขืž'ืข ื•ื”ืขืจื” 193 ืฉื.)
ื•ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจื‘ ื“ื•ื“ ืงืื”ืŸ ื‘ืกืคืจื• 'ื”ืขืงื•ื‘ ืœืžื™ืฉื•ืจ' (ืขืž'ืœื“) ืฉื”ืฆื™ืข ืคืขื ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ืฉ"ืฉ ืœื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจ'ืžืฉื” ืคื™ื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ื–ืฆ"ืœ, "ื•ืขื ื” ืœื™ ื”ื’ืจ"ืž ื–ืฆ"ืœ ื“ืœื™ืช ื”ืœื›ืชื ื›ื•ื•ืชื™ื”, ืฉื”ืจื™ ืื ื• ืจื•ืื™ื ืฉื”ืžื“ืคื™ืกื™ื ื›ืชื‘ื• ืฉื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ืฉื ืืžืจ ืขื›ื•"ื ืื• ื›ื•ืชื™ ื‘ืฉ"ืก ืื• ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืื™ืŸ ื”ืžื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื’ื•ื™ ืฉื‘ื™ืžื™ื”ื ื•ืœื ืžื™ื—ื• ื‘ื™ื“ื ื—ื›ืžื™ ื”ื“ื•ืจ"[2].
ืืžื ื ื™ืฉ ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืžืฆื™ื ื• ืœื”ื’ืจืž"ืค ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื• ืฉื”ืกืชืžืš ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ืฉ"ืฉ ื”ื "ืœ โ€“ ืฉื•"ืช 'ืื’ืจื•ืช ืžืฉื”' (ืื•"ื— ื—"ื‘ ืกื™'ื ื), 'ื“ื‘ืจื•ืช ืžืฉื”'ืขืž"ืก ืฉื‘ืช (ืขืž'ืงื ื˜) ื•'ื“ื‘ืจื•ืช ืžืฉื”'ืขืž"ืก ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช (ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื’ ืฉื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืกืคืจ ืื•ืช ื•).

'ืฉื‘ื˜ ื”ืœื•ื™': "ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”... ืžืฆื•ื” ื’ืžื•ืจื” ืื™ื›ื ืœื”ืฉืœื™ื ื”ื—ืกืจ"
ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืื“ ืžื›ืชื‘ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจ'ืฉืžื•ืืœ ื”ืœื•ื™ ื•ืื–ื ืจ ื–ืฆ"ืœ, ื‘ืฉื•"ืช 'ืฉื‘ื˜ ื”ืœื•ื™' (ื—"ื— ืกื™'ืจื›ื”), ื•ืืขืชื™ืงื• ืžืคื ื™ ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืชื•:
ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ื™ื“ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžื›ื•ื‘ื“ ืžืื“ ืคืืจ ื”ื™ื—ืก ื•ื”ืžืขืฉ ื”ื”"ื’ ื”ืฉืœื ื›ืฉ"ืช ืžื•ื”"ืจ ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืคืจื ืงืœ ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื.
ืื—ื“ืฉื”"ื˜ ื•ืฉ"ืช ื‘ืื”"ืจ.
ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”'ืืช ื›ื‘ื•ื“ื• ื "ื™ ืœืคืืจ ื’ื ืืช ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“ ื‘ื‘ืœื™ (ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื–ื›ื” ืœื–ื” ื‘ื”ืจืžื‘"ื) ื‘ื”ื•ืกืคื•ืช ื™ืงืจื•ืช, ื•ืœืจื’ืœ ืขื‘ื•ื”"ืง ื ื•ืœื“ ืกืคืง ืœื›"ืช ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ื™ื•ืช ื™ื“ื•ืข ื›ื™ ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื’ืจืžื• ื”ื’ื•ื™ื ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืœืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืฉ"ืก ื•ื’ื ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืงื˜ืขื™ื ืฉืœืžื™ื ืžืžื ื•, ื•ื’ื ื‘ืฉ"ืก ื•ื™ืœื ื ืขื ื›ืœ ื”ื‘ืงื•ืจืช ื•ื”ื’ื” ืขื“ื™ืŸ ื ืฉืืจื• ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื“ืคื•ืก ืœืžืื•ืช ื›ื™ื“ื•ืข, ื•ืขื“ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื›ืœ ื”ืžื“ืคื™ืกื™ื ืœื ื”ืกืชื›ืœื• ืขืœ ื–ื” ืจืง ืžืฆืœืžื™ื ืื• ืžืขืชื™ืงื™ื ื”ืฉ"ืก ื•ื™ืœื ื ื›ืžื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ืขื ื”ืžืขืœื•ืช ื•ื—ืกืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช, ื•ื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ื™ ืข"ื™ ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื ืืคืฉืจ ืœืชืงืŸ ืืช ื”ืกื™ืœื•ืคื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื•ืืช ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื“ืคื•ืก ืฉื ืฉืืจื• ืขื“ื™ืŸ ืืœื ืฉืขื•ืœื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื›ืกืฃ, ืข"ื› ื ืกืชืคืง ื›"ืช ืœื“ื™ื ื, ืื ืžืฆืœื ืืช ื”ืฉ"ืก ื›ืžื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื•ื [ืื™] ืืจื•ืš ืœื”ืœื›ื” ื›ื™ ื›ื‘ืจ ื“ืฉื• ื•ืจื’ื™ืœื™ื ื‘ื• ื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืื• ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืกื•"ืก ืืคืฉืจ ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืœืชืงื ื• ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื•ืื ืื™ื ื• ืžื’ื™ื”ื• ืขื“ ื”ืกื•ืฃ ืขื“ื™ืŸ ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืœื ืชืฉื›ื•ืŸ ื‘ืื”ืœื™ืš ืขื•ืœื” ืฉื ื“ืจืฉ ื‘ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ื™"ื˜ ืข"ื‘ ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉื”ื” ืกืคืจ ืฉืื™ื ื• ืžื•ื’ื” ืœ'ื™ื•ื, ื•ื ืคืกืง ืœื”ืœื›ื” ื‘ื™ื•"ื“ ืกื™'ืจืข"ื˜. ืืœื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืžื›"ืช ื‘ืชื•ืก'ืงืฆืช, ื•ื’ื ื”ืขื™ืจ ืžืชืฉื•ื‘ืช ื”ืจืž"ื ืกื™'ื™'ืฉืคืกืง ื›ืขื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืกืคืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื.
...ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ ืฉื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืฉ"ืก ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื’ื” ื‘ืฉืขืชื• ืืœื ืœืจื‘ื•ื™ ื”ืชื™ื‘ื•ืช ื•ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืœืืœืคื™ ืืœืคื™ื ืจื‘ื‘ื•ืช ืœื ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื‘ืœื™ ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช, ืžื›"ืž ื”ื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช ืื™ื ื ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื”ืœื›ื”, ื•ืื™ืŸ ื—ืฉืฉ ืฉื™ืฆื ืžื–ื” ืžื›ืฉื•ืœ ื‘ื”ื•ืจืื”, ื‘ืคืจื˜ ืœื“ื™ื“ืŸ ืฉืคื•ืกืงื™ื ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืฉื•"ืข ืœื ืžื”ืฉ"ืก, ื"ื› ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ืžืฉื•ื ืืœ ืชืฉื›ื•ืŸ ื‘ืื”ืœื™ืš ืขื•ืœื”, ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื ื”ื™ ื“ืžืฆื•ื” ื’ืžื•ืจื” ืื™ื›ื ืœื”ืฉืœื™ื ื”ื—ืกืจ ืื‘ืœ ื’ื ื‘ื–ื” ืื™ืŸ ื—ืกืจื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ื‘ืœื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ื›ื™ื•"ื‘.
ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ืขื›"ืค ืชื‘ื ืขืœื™ื• ื‘ืจื›ื” ืื™ื›ื ื‘ื•ื“ืื™, ื•ื’ื ืžืฆื•ื” ืœืชืงืŸ, ื•ืข"ื› ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืฉื™ื ืฉืžื–ื“ืžื ื™ื ืœื›ื ื“ืจืš ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ ืฉืœื›ื ื‘ื•ื“ืื™ ืžืฆื•ื” ื•ื—ื™ื•ื‘ ืœืชืงืŸ ื•ื‘ืคืจื˜ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ืœ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื˜ืขื•ืช ื”ืžื“ืคื™ืกื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ืœื—ืคืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื ื—ื™ื•ื‘ ื ื’ื“ ืžื” ืฉื ื“ืคืก ื›ื–ื” ื›ื‘ืจ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืคืขืžื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื“ืจืš ืชื‘ื ืขืœื™ื• ื‘ืจื›ื” ืื ืืคืฉืจ ื›ืŸ ื•ืœื”ืžืฆื™ื ืœื›ืœืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืžื•ืฉืœื ื•ืžืชื•ืงืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื•ืžื” ื ืขื™ื ื•ืชื‘ื ืขืœ ื›"ืช ื‘ืจื›ืช ื˜ื•ื‘.
ื•ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉื›ืชื‘ ืฉ"ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”... ืื™ืŸ ื—ืกืจื•ืŸ ื”ื–ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ืจื•ื ื‘ืœื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ื”ื•ืจืื”"ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ืžืคืกืง ื”ืจืžื‘"ื (ื”ืœ'ืข"ื– ืค"ื” ื”"ื™): "ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืฉื ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื” ืฉืœื ื“ืจืš ืฉื‘ื•ืขื” ืืกื•ืจ", ื•ื›ืชื‘ ื‘'ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ืžื™ื™ืžื•ื ื™ืช' (ืกื•ืฃ ืื•ืช ื’ ื‘ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืช ืคืจื ืงืœ): "...ืื‘ืœ ืฉื ื”ื“ื™ื•ื˜ื•ืช ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืฉืžื•ืช ื‘ืขืœืžื ื›ืฉืžื•ืช ื”ื’ื•ื™ื, ืืข"ืค ืฉืขืฉืื•ื”ื• ืืœื•ื”, ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื–ื” ื”ืฉื ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื• ืืœื”ื•ืช ื•ืื“ื ื•ืช ื•ื’ื ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื• ืœืฉื ื›ืš ืžื•ืชืจ... ื•ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ืชืœืžื•ื“ ื”ื•ื–ื›ืจื• ื™ืฉื• ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื•, ื•ืื™ืŸ ืืœื•ื” ื’ื•ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื ื•" (ื•ื”ื•ืขืชืง ื‘'ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื”ื’ืจ"ื'ื™ื•"ื“ ืกื™'ืงืžื– ืกืง"ื’). ื”ืจื™ ืฉืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ื”ืœื›ื” ืžื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื”ื•ื–ื›ืจื• "ื™ืฉื• ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื•"ื‘ืชืœืžื•ื“, ื”ืจื™ ืฉื’ื ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ ื™ืฉื• ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื• ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืœื›ื”.

ื“ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ื›"ืง ืื“ืžื•"ืจ ื–ื™"ืข ืžืœื™ื•ื‘ืื•ื•ื™ื˜ืฉ ืขืœ ื”ื“ืคืกืช ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช
ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ื”ื“ืคืกืช ื”ืงื˜ืขื™ื ืฉื ืฉืžื˜ื• ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื”ืืจื™ืš ืคืจื•ืค'ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉ'ืฉืคื™ื’ืœ ื‘ืกืคืจื• 'ืขืžื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ โ€“ ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ื•ืžื’ื™ื”ื™ื' (ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื” ืฉื ื™ื” ืขืž' 584-588, 592-595), ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื ื›ืชื‘ื• ื‘ื–ื” ืขื™ื™"ืฉ.
ื•ืืชืขื›ื‘ ื‘ื–ื” ืจืง ืขืœ ืคืจื˜ ืื—ื“, ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืฉืžื™ ืฉื (ืขืž' 587 ื”ืขืจื” 45) ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ืžื“ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจื‘ื™ ืžืœื™ื•ื‘ืื•ื•ื™ื˜ืฉ ื‘ื–ื”. ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ื•ืœืชืงืŸ ืฉื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืœืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘'ืชื•ืจืช ืžื ื—ื'ืชืฉื™"ื‘ (ื—"ื‘ ืขืž' 46-47, 51-52). ื•ืืœื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจื‘ื™ ืฉื:
"ืกืคืจืชื™ ื›ืžื” ืคืขืžื™ื ืฉื›ืืฉืจ ื›"ืง ืžื•"ื— ืื“ืžื•"ืจ ื‘ื™ืงืจ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื ื ื˜ืคืœื• ืืœื™ื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื—ืจื“ื™ืช... ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื˜ืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื ื”ื’ืชื•: ื™ืฉื ื• ืกื™ืžืŸ ื‘ืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ ืขืจื•ืš [ื—ื•"ืž ืกื•ืฃ ืกื™'ืชื›ื”] โ€“ ื˜ืขื ื• ื”ื โ€“ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ืคืก"ื“ ืื•ื“ื•ืช ืืœื” ืฉ'ืœื ืžืขืœื™ืŸ ื•ืœื ืžื•ืจื™ื“ื™ืŸ', ื•ื™ืชื™ืจื” ืžื–ื”, 'ืžื•ืจื™ื“ื™ืŸ ื•ืœื ืžืขืœื™ืŸ', ื—"ื•, ื•ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื›ืŸ โ€“ ื˜ืขื ื• ื”ื โ€“ ืœืžื” ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื—ืžื™ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ืฉื•"ืข... ื•ืœื”ืชืขืกืง ื‘ื”ืฆืœืชื ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื›ืืœื” ืฉื”ื ื‘ื’ื“ืจ ื“'ืœื ืžืขืœื™ืŸ ื•ืœื ืžื•ืจื™ื“ื™ืŸ', ื•ืขืื›ื•"ื› ืœื”ืชืขืกืง ื‘ื”ืฆืœืชื ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื›ืืœื” ืฉื”ื ื‘ื’ื“ืจ ื“'ืžื•ืจื™ื“ื™ืŸ ื•ืœื ืžืขืœื™ืŸ'?!...
...ืื ืœื ื“ื™ ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืคืจื˜ื™ ื”ื“ื™ื ื™ื ื”ื "ืœ ื”ื ื‘ืื—ื“ ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ืืฉื‘ื—ืœืง ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸื“ื”ืฉื•"ืข (ืฉื‘ื–ื” ืžื•ื“ื’ืฉ ื›ืืžื•ืจ ืฉืœื™ืžื•ื“ื ืฆ"ืœ ืœืื—ืจื™ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ื•ืงื™ื•ื ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื•"ืข) โ€“ ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ื–ื” ื’ื ื”ืฉืžื˜ืช ื”'ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ'ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ.
โ€“ ื”ื•ื (ื”'ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ') ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ื—ืฉื‘ ืฉื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืœื›ืš ื”ื™ื ืžืคื ื™ ืฉืื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืžืชืื™ื ืœื—ื•ืงื™ ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืžืฉืœืชื•, ืื‘ืœ ื”ืืžืช ื”ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉื ื” ืกื™ื‘ื” ืื—ืจืช ืœื“ื‘ืจ: ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืขืœื ื•ื”ืกืชืจ ื”ื’ืœื•ืช ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื“ ื›ื“ื™ ื›ืš ืฉืงื™ื™ืžืช ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืกื™ืžืŸ ื”ื "ืœ ื‘ืฉื•"ืข... ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืงื™ื•ื ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืžืžืฉ... ืœื›ืŸ, ืกื™ื‘ื‘ื• ืžืœืžืขืœื”ืฉื™ื‘ื•ื ื’ื•ื™, ืฉืื™ื ื• ื‘ืขืœ-ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”, ื•ื™ืฉืžื™ื˜ ื—ืœืงืžื”ืชื•ืจื”, ืจื—ืžื ื ืœื™ืฆืœืŸ, ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื›ืืœื” ืฉื™ื˜ืขื• ืœื”ืชื ื”ื’ ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœื›ืš โ€“ ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืื—ืจ โ€“ ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืžืžืฉ!"
ื•ืข"ื– ื›ืชื‘ ืคืจื•ืค'ืฉืคื™ื’ืœ ืฉื:
"ืืžื ื ืืคืฉืจ ืฉื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืื“ืžื•"ืจ ื”ื™ื• ืœืžืงื•ืžื ื•ืœืฉืขืชื, ื•ื”ื•ื ืจืฆื” ื‘ื–ื” 'ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืจืื™ื”'ืœื’ื™ืฉืช ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช ื—ื‘"ื“, ืฉื™ืฉ ืœืงืจื‘ ื›ืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื•ื—"ื• ืœื•ืžืจ ืœื’ื‘ื™ื• 'ืœื ืžืขืœื™ืŸ ื•ืœื ืžื•ืจื™ื“ื™ืŸ'ื•ื›ื“'. ืื‘ืœ ื’ื ื”ืื“ืžื•"ืจ ื™ื•ื“ื” ืฉืื ื ื‘ื•ื ืœื”ื“ืคื™ืก ื”ื™ื•ื ืืช ื”ืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ ืขืจื•ืš ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืœื”ื“ืคื™ืกื• ืœืœื ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•".
ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืคืจื•ืค'ืฉืคื™ื’ืœ ืžื”ืกืก ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืจื•ืจ, ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืื™ืŸ ืžืงื•ื ืœืกืคืง ื›ืœืœ ืฉืœื“ืขืช ื”ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื“ืคื™ืก ื”ื™ื•ื ืืช ื”'ืฉืœื—ืŸ ืขืจื•ืš'ืœืœื ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช. ื•ืฉืชื™ ื”ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช ื‘ืจื•ืจื•ืช ืœื“ื‘ืจ.
ื) ื‘ืจื™ื‘ื•ื™ ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื™ ืื ื• ืžื•ืฆืื™ื ืฉืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœ"ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœื ืฉืœื˜ื” ื™ื“ ื”ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ", ื•ื›ืŸ ืฉ"ื™ืฉ ืœื—ืคืฉ ื‘ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ื•ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™-ื™ื“ ืฉืœื ืฉืœื˜ื” ื‘ื”ื ื™ื“ ื”ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ", ื•ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื ืืฆื™ื™ืŸ ื›ืžื” ื”ืคื ื™ื•ืช ื‘'ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ ืฉื™ื—ื•ืช'(ื—ืœืง ื›ื” ืขืž' 56 ื”ืขืจื” 29, ื—ืœืง ื›ื• ืขืž' 160 ื”ืขืจื” 5, ื—ืœืง ืœ ืขืž' 130 ื”ืขืจื” 34, ื—ืœืง ืœื“ ืขืž' 24 ื”ืขืจื” 7), ื‘'ืื’ืจื•ืช ืงื•ื“ืฉ'ืฉืœื• (ื—ืœืง ื™ื— ืขืž'ืฉืœื, ื—ืœืง ืœ ืขืž'ืขื–)ื•ื‘'ืชื•ืจืช ืžื ื—ื'(ืชืฉื™"ื ื—"ื ืขืž' 218 ื”ืขืจื” ื‘, ืชืฉื˜"ื– ื—"ื‘ ืขืž' 257, ืชืฉืž"ื‘ ื—"ื“ ืขืž' 1951, ืชืฉืž"ื’ ื—"ื’ ืขืž' 1333, ืชืฉืž"ื” ื—"ื’ ืขืž' 2001, ืชืฉืž"ื• ื—"ื ืขืž' 608). ื•ืขื•ื“.
ื‘) ื›ืฉื”ืจื‘ื™ ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ื“ื™ืจ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืฉ"ื› ืืช ืฉื•"ืข ืื“ื”"ื– ื‘ืขืœ ื”'ืชื ื™ื', ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ื‘'ืคืชื— ื“ื‘ืจ'ืœื—ืœืง ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื™ื ืฉื ืชื—ื“ืฉื• ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืื” ื–ื•: "ืœืื—ืจ ื—ืœืง ืฉืฉื™ ื‘ื ืฉืขืจ ื”ื”ื•ืกืคื•ืช, ื”ื›ื•ืœืœ: ื) ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื•"ืข ืจื‘[ื™]ื ื• ืฉื ืฉืžื˜ื• ืžืคื ื™ ื™ืจืืช ื”ืฆืขื ื–ืืจ...". ืœืคื•ืขืœ ื›ืฉืื›ืŸ ื ื“ืคืก ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ืฉืฉื™ ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืฉื›"ื— ืœื ื ื›ืœืœื• ื‘ื• ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• "ืžืคื ื™ ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื˜ื›ื ื™ื•ืช"(ื›ืคื™ ืฉืฆื™ื™ื ื• ืžืขืจื›ืช 'ืื•ืฆืจ ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ื'ื‘'ื”ืงื“ืžื”'ืฉื), ืืžื ื ืืœื• ื ืชืคืจืกืžื• ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืกืคืจื™ 'ืžืจืื™ ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื'ืฉื ืขืจื›ื• ืœื›ืœ ื—ืœืงื™ ืฉื•"ืข ืื“ื”"ื–, ื•ื™ืฆืื• ืœืื•ืจ ืข"ื™ ื”ื•ืฆืืช ืงื”"ืช[3].
ืขืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจื‘ื™ ื”ื "ืœ ืื›ืŸ ืชื•ืงื ื• ื‘ืคื ื™ื ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืช ืงื”"ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” (ืฉื ื“ืคืก ืžืฉื ืช ืชืฉืก"ื ื•ืื™ืœืš).

ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ืœืขื•ืžืช ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“ ื‘ื‘ืœื™ ืฉื™ืฆืื• ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื™ืฉื ืŸ ืžื’ืžื•ืช ื”ืคื•ื›ื•ืช.
ื‘'ืžื‘ื•ื ืงืฆืจ'ืฉื‘ืจืืฉ ืžืกื›ืช ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื', ืฉื™ื•ืฆื ืœืื•ืจ ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื•ืฆืืช ื•ื’ืฉืœ, ื›ื•ืชื‘ ื”ืžื•"ืœ (ื‘ืคืจืง "ื”ืฉืœืžืช ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ื•ื”ืขืจื•ืช"): "ื‘ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื” ื–ื• ื”ื•ืฉืœืžื• ื›ืœ ื—ืกืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉ"ืก ืฉื”ื•ืฉืžื˜ื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™, ื•ืฉื™ื™ื›ื™ื ืœื’ืžืจื, ื•ื‘ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืชื™ื ื• ื”ื•ืฉืœืžื• ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจื ืœืžืงื•ืžื ืขืœ ื”ื“ืฃ. (ืžืœื‘ื“ ืชื™ื‘ื•ืช ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื•ืช ืฉืกื™ืœืคื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืฉ"ืก ื‘ืžืงื•ื 'ื’ื•ื™'ืชื™ื‘ืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื, ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ื 'ืžืฉื•ืžื“'ย  ื›ืชื‘ื• ืžื•ืžืจ, ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ื 'ื’ืžืจื'ื›ืชื‘ื• ืฉ"ืก, ืชืœืžื•ื“[4]. ื“ื‘ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื—ื–ืจื ื• ื”ืชื™ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื‘ืžืงื•ืจ ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื”ืขืจื” ื–ื• ื›ืืŸ)".
ื•ืื™ืœื• ื‘'ืžื‘ื•ื ืœืชืœืžื•ื“ ื‘ื‘ืœื™ ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืช ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ืฉื‘ืจืืฉ ืžืกื›ืช ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช (ืขืž'ื•) ื›ืชื•ื‘: "ื‘ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ื’ืžืจื ื”ืฉืืจื ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืืช ืฉื‘ื•ืฉื™ ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ืฉื‘ืฉ"ืก ื•ื™ืœื ื (ืขื™'ืฉื•"ืช ืืจืฅ ืฆื‘ื™ ื—"ื‘ ืกื™'ืขื“), ื•ื”ืขืจื ื• ืขืœื™ื”ื ื‘ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื. ื‘ืžืคืจืฉื™ื ืฉื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืžืกื›ืช ืชื™ืงื ื ื• ืื•ืชื ืœืคืขืžื™ื".

ืžื™ ื”ื•ืจื” ืœืขื•ืจื›ื™ 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ืฉืœื ืœืชืงืŸ ืืช ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”?
ืื—ื™ ื”ืจื”"ื— ืจ'ืฉืœื•ื ืฉื™'ืื‘ืขืจืœืื ื“ืขืจ ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืœื™ ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืžืืžืจ ืฉื”ื•ืคื™ืข ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ืื™ื“ื™ืฉ ืฉื™ืฆื ืœืื•ืจ ื‘ื ื™ื• ื™ืืจืง ('ื“ืขืจ ืื™ื“'ื”'ื˜ื‘ืช ืชืฉืก"ื—, ืฆื•ื•ื™ื™ื˜ืข ืืคื˜ื™ื™ืœื•ื ื’ ื‘/36), ืœื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืกื™ื•ื ืขืจื™ื›ืช ื•ื”ื“ืคืกืช ื”ืฉ"ืก ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'.
ื”ืžืืžืจ ืžื’ื•ืœืœ ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื‘ื”ื“ืคืกื•ืช ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“. ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ืžืกืคืจ ืฉืขื•ืจื›ื™ 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื”ื™ื• ืœื”ื ืกืคื™ืงื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืื ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืขื˜ืจื” ืœื™ื•ืฉื ื” ื•ืœื ืงื•ืช ืืช ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“ ืžืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื”ื ืคื ื• ืœื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจ'ื™ืฆื—ืง ื˜ื•ื‘ื™'ื•ื•ื™ื™ืก ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื ื’ืื‘"ื“ ื”ืขื“ื” ื”ื—ืจื“ื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืฉื”ื›ืจื™ืข ื ื’ื“ ื–ื”, ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื’ื ื”ื™ื•ื ื™ืฉ ืœื—ืฉื•ืฉ ืžืขืœื™ืœื•ืช ืžืฆื“ ื”ื ื›ืจื™ื ืœืžื™ื ื™ื”ื.
ืื ื™ ืžืกื•ืคืง ืžืื“ ื‘ืืžื™ืชื•ืช ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ, ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื–ื” ืฉื™ื“ื™ืขื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ื–ื• ืœื ืžื•ืคื™ืขื” ื‘'ืžื‘ื•ื'ื”ื "ืœ, ื”ืจื™ ืœืคื™ ืฉื™ื˜ื” ื–ื• ืžื” ื”ื•ืขื™ืœื• ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื‘ื–ื” ืฉืœื ื”ื—ื–ื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ืœืžืงื•ืžื, ื”ืจื™ ืื—ืจื™ ืฉืืœื• ืžื•ืคื™ืขื™ื ื‘ืœืฉื•ื ื ื‘ืฉื•ืœื™ ื”ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ, ื”ืจื™ ืฉื•ื‘ ื™ืฉ ืœื—ืฉื•ืฉ ืžืคื’ื™ืขืชื ืจืขื” ืฉืœ ืžื—ืคืฉื™ ืจืขืชื ื•.


ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื', ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื•ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ 'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'

ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื
ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ืžื’, ืืื•ื“ื•ืช ืžืฉืคื˜ ื™ืฉื• ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื• ื”ื•ื ื•ื“ืื™ ื”ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื”ื›ื™ ื‘ื•ืœื˜ืช ืขืœ ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืกื•ืช ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื ืฉืžื˜ื• ืžืคื ื™ ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”.
ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ื”ื—ื–ื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื” ืœืžืงื•ืžื” ื‘ืคื ื™ื ื”ื’ืžืจื, ื•ื‘ื”ืขืจื” (ืื•ืช ื™) ื”ืขื™ืจื•: "ืžื›ืืŸ ื•ืขื“ ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ื•ืฉืžื˜ ืข"ื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื•ื ื•ืกืฃ ื›ืืŸ ืข"ืค ื•ื™ื ื™ืฆื™ืื” ืจ"ืค ื•ืก"ื".
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ืœื ื”ื—ื–ื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื” ืœืžืงื•ืžื”, ืืžื ื ื”ืขืชื™ืงื• ืืช ื–ื” ื‘'ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื' (ืื•ืช ื‘): "ื‘ื“ืคื•"ื™ (ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ) ื ื•ืกืฃ... (ื›ืœ ื”ืขื ื™ืŸ ื ืฉืžื˜ ื‘ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ ื•ื”ืขืชืงื ื•ื”ื• ืžื“ืคื•"ื™ ืขื ื”ื•ืกืคื•ืช ื•ืชื™ืงื•ื ื™ื ืข"ืค ื›ืช"ื™)".
ื‘'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืง ื ื“ืคืก "ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ืฉ"ืก ื•ื•ื™ืœื ื ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืช ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ"ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื” ืงืžื (ืฉื‘ื• ืœื ืžื•ืคื™ืข ืžื“ื•ืจ 'ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื') ืฉืฉื ื–ื” ืœื ืžื•ืคื™ืข. ื•ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ืฉืžืžื•ืœ ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ืกืชืžื• ื›ืชื‘ื•: "ื”ืžืฉืš ื”ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ืื™ื ื• ืžื•ืคื™ืข ืœืคื ื™ื ื• ื‘ื’ืžืจื". ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ื‘ืฉื•ื”"ื’ (ื”ืขืจื” 38): "ื‘ื’ื™ืจืกืช ื”ืฉ"ืก ืฉืœ ื”ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœืคื ื™ื ื•, ื—ืกืจ ื‘ื’ืžืจื ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ื‘ื ืื—ืจ ืฉืืœื” ื–ื•. ืœื ื•ืกื— ื”ืฉืœื ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื, ืจืื” ื“ืงื“ื•ืงื™ ืกื•ืคืจื™ื". ื”ืงื•ืจื ืื™ื ื• ืžืงื‘ืœ ืืคื™ืœื• ืจืžื– ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื” ื”ืืจื•ื›ื”.
ืืฆื™ื’ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœืคื™ ืกื“ืจ ื”ืฉ"ืก ืขื•ื“ ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืœื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื•ืชื™ืงื•ื ื™ื ื•ื”ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ื–ื” ืžื•ืคื™ืข ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช.

ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื‘
ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ื™ื‘, ื:ื•ืงื•ืจื™ืŸ ืขืฉืจืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจื•ืช ืฉืžืข ื•ื”ื™ื” ืื ืฉืžื•ืข ื•ื™ืืžืจ ืืžืช ื•ื™ืฆื™ื‘ ื•ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื•ื‘ืจื›ืช ื›ื”ื ื™ื. ืืžืจ ืจื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืืžืจ ืฉืžื•ืืœ: ืืฃ ื‘ื’ื‘ื•ืœื™ืŸ ื‘ืงืฉื• ืœืงืจื•ืช ื›ืŸ, ืืœื ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ื˜ืœื•ื ืžืคื ื™ ืชืจืขื•ืžืช ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ (ืฉืœื ื™ืืžืจื• ืœืขืžื™ ื”ืืจืฅ ืื™ืŸ ืฉืืจ ืชื•ืจื” ืืžืช, ื•ืชื“ืขื• ืฉืื™ืŸ ืงื•ืจื™ืŸ ืืœื ืžื” ืฉืืžืจ ื”ืงื‘"ื” ื•ืฉืžืขื• ืžืคื™ื• ื‘ืกื™ื ื™. ืจืฉ"ื™). ื•ืžืคืจืฉ ืจืฉ"ื™: "ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ. ืขื›ื•"ื".
ื‘ื“ืคื•ืก ื•ื ืฆื™ื” ื ื“ืคืก (ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืข"ื‘): "ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ โ€“ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฉื•".
ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ื”ืขื™ืจื• (ืื•ืช ื˜): "ื‘ืก"ื: ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฉื•".
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื”ืขื™ืจื• (ืื•ืช ื–): "ื‘ื“ืคื•"ื™: ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฉื•".
ื‘'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืง ืคื™ืจืฉื•: "ืžืคื ื™ ืชืจืขื•ืžืช ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ (ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื”)", ื•ื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ื• ืขืœ ื›ืš ื‘ืฉื•ื”"ื’ (ื”ืขืจื” 3): "ืจืฉ"ื™. ื•ืื™ืŸ ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื›ืืŸ ืœืื•ืชื ื”'ืžื™ื ื™ื'ื”ื ื–ื›ืจื™ื ืœืงืžืŸ ืขืžื•ื“ ื‘, ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื, ืฉื”ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืจื” ืฉื‘ื›ืชื‘ ืืœื ืฉื›ื•ืคืจื™ื ื‘ืงื‘ืœืช ื—ื–"ืœ ื•ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืฉืœื ื›ื”ืœื›ื”. [ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืฆืœ"ื— ื•ืžื”ืจ"ืฅ ื—ื™ื•ืช; ื•ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื’ื ืžื’ื“ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื.]"
ืคื™ืขื ื•ื— ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื: ื”ืฆืœ"ื— ืžื“ื™ื™ืง ื‘ืœืฉื•ืŸ ืจืฉ"ื™ ืฉืคื™ืจืฉ "ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ. ืขื›ื•"ื", ืฉื‘ื ืœืฉืœื•ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ ืฉืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืชื•ืฉื‘ืข"ืค. ืืžื ื ื”'ืžื’ื“ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื'ื”ืขื™ืจ: "ื”ืฆืœ"ื— ื›ืชื‘ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืœืคื™ ืžืฉ"ื› ื‘ืจืฉ"ื™ ืœืคื ื™ื ื• ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ ืขื›ื•"ื. ืืžื ื ืื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืžืœืฉื•ืŸ ืจืฉ"ื™, ืืœื ื”ื•ื 'ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ'ืžืขืฉื” ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจ"(ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืขื™ืจื• ืขืœ ื›ืš ื‘ื”ืขืจื” ื˜ื• ื‘ืฆืœ"ื— ืฉื™"ืœ ืข"ื™ ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื). ื•ืœืคื™ ื”ื’ื™ืจืกื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ืช ื‘ืจืฉ"ื™ ื”ืจื™ ื’ื ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ ืฉื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ื, ื•ื’ื ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ ืฉื‘ืขืžื•ื“, ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื”ื ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™.

ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื’
ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ื™ื‘, ื‘:ืคืจืฉืช ืฆื™ืฆื™ืช ืžืคื ื™ ืžื” ืงื‘ืขื•ื”? ืืžืจ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืจ ื—ื‘ื™ื‘ื: ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื” ื—ืžืฉื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื: ืžืฆื•ืช ืฆื™ืฆื™ืช, ื™ืฆื™ืืช ืžืฆืจื™ื, ืขื•ืœ ืžืฆื•ืช, ื•ื“ืขืช ืžื™ื ื™ื, ื”ืจื”ื•ืจ ืขื‘ื™ืจื”, ื•ื”ืจื”ื•ืจ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื” ื•ื›ื•'. ื•ื”ืจื”ื•ืจ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื” ืžื ืœืŸ? ื“ืชื ื™ื: ืึทื—ึฒืจึตื™ ืœึฐื‘ึทื‘ึฐื›ึถื [ื‘ืžื“ื‘ืจ ื˜ื•, ืœื˜]โ€“ ื–ื• ืžื™ื ื•ืช. ื•ืคืจืฉ"ื™: "ื”ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ื˜ืขืžื™ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืœืžื“ืจืฉ ื˜ืขื•ืช ื•ืืœื™ืœ".
ื‘ื“ืคื•ืก ื•ื ืฆื™ื” ื ื“ืคืก (ื“ืฃ ื™ื’, ื): "ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ื”ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ื˜ืขืžื™ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืœืžื“ืจืฉ ื˜ืขื•ืช ื•ืืœื™ืœ".
ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ื”ืขื™ืจื• (ืื•ืช ืž): "ื‘ืก"ื: ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™".
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื”ืขื™ืจื• (ืื•ืช ื—): "ื‘ื“ืคื•"ื™: ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฉื• ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™".
ื‘'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืง ืœื ื”ืขืชื™ืงื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจืฉ"ื™, ื•ืกืชืžื• ืœื›ืชื•ื‘: "ืฉืœื ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืžื™ื ื•ืช".

ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื“
ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ื™ื–, ื‘:ืื™ืŸ ืคืจืฅ โ€“ ืฉืœื ืชื”ื ืกื™ืขืชื ื• ื›ืกื™ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ื“ื•ื“ ืฉื™ืฆื ืžืžื ื• ืื—ื™ืชื•ืคืœ, ื•ืื™ืŸ ื™ื•ืฆืืช โ€“ ืฉืœื ืชื”ื ืกื™ืขืชื ื• ื›ืกื™ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ืฉืื•ืœ ืฉื™ืฆื ืžืžื ื• ื“ื•ืื’ ื”ืื“ื•ืžื™, ื•ืื™ืŸ ืฆื•ื—ื” โ€“ ืฉืœื ืชื”ื ืกื™ืขืชื ื• ื›ืกื™ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ืืœื™ืฉืข ืฉื™ืฆื ืžืžื ื• ื’ื—ื–ื™, ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• โ€“ ืฉืœื ื™ื”ื ืœื ื• ื‘ืŸ ืื• ืชืœืžื™ื“ ืฉืžืงื“ื™ื— ืชื‘ืฉื™ืœื• ื‘ืจื‘ื™ื.
ื‘ื“ืคื•ืก ื•ื ืฆื™ื” ื ื“ืคืก (ื“ืฃ ื™ื—, ื): "ืชืœืžื™ื“ ืฉืžืงื“ื™ื— ืชื‘ืฉื™ืœื• ื‘ืจื‘ื™ื, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™".
ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ืœื ืชื•ืงืŸ ื•ืืฃ ืœื ื”ืขื™ืจื• ืข"ื–.
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื”ืขื™ืจื• (ืื•ืช ื‘): "ื‘ื“ืคื•"ื™ ื•ื‘ื›ืช"ื™ ื•ื‘ืข"ื™ ื ื•ืกืฃ: ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื™ืฉื• ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™".
ื‘'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืง ืœื ื”ืขื™ืจื• ื›ืœื•ื.

ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื”
ื’ื™ื˜ื™ืŸ ื ื•, ื‘โ€“ื ื–, ื:ืื•ื ืงืœื•ืก ื‘ืจ ืงืœื•ื ื™ืงื•ืก ื‘ืจ ืื—ืชื™ื” ื“ื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ื”ื•ื”, ื‘ืขื™ ืœืื™ื’ื™ื•ืจื™, ืื–ืœ ืืกืงื™ื” ืœื˜ื™ื˜ื•ืก ื‘ื ื’ื™ื“ื ื•ื›ื•'. ืื–ืœ ืืกืงื™ื” ืœื‘ืœืขื ื‘ื ื’ื™ื“ื ื•ื›ื•'. ืื–ืœ ืืกืงื™ื” ื‘ื ื’ื™ื“ื ืœืคื•ืฉืขื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœื•ื›ื•'.
ื‘ื“ืคื•ืก ื•ื ืฆื™ื” ื ื“ืคืก: "ืื–ืœ ืืกืงื™ื” ืœื™ืฉื• ื‘ื ื’ื™ื“ื".
ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ื”ืขื™ืจื• (ืื•ืช ื‘): "ื‘ืก"ื: ืœื™ืฉ"ื•".
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื”ืขื™ืจื• (ืื•ืช ื’): "ืฆ"ืœ ืืกืงื™ื” ืœื™ืฉื• ื‘ื ื’ื™ื“ื (ื“ืคื•"ื™ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ)".
ื‘'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืง ืคื™ืจืฉื•: "ื•ืขืœื” ื‘ืื•ื‘ ืื—ื“ ืžืคื•ืฉืขื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ", ื•ื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ื• ืขืœ ื›ืš ื‘ืฉื•ื”"ื’ (ื”ืขืจื” 4): "ืœืคื™ ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื™ื“ ื•ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ื™ืฉื ื™ื, ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืชืœืžื™ื“ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ื‘ืŸ ืคืจื—ื™ื” ืฉื™ืฆื ืœืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืจืขื” ื•ื”ืกื™ืช ื•ื”ื“ื™ื— ืืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ (ืจืื” ืกื•ื˜ื” ืžื–, ื; ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ืงื–, ื‘)".

ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื•
ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ื™ื–, ื:ืืžืจ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ื—ื ืŸ: ืื™ืŸ ืžื•ืฉื™ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ ืืœื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืงื•ืžื”, ื•ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื›ืžื”, ื•ื‘ืขืœื™ ืžืจืื”, ื•ื‘ืขืœื™ ื–ืงื ื”, ื•ื‘ืขืœื™ ื›ืฉืคื™ื. ื•ืคืจืฉ"ื™: "ืœื”ืžื™ืช ืžื›ืฉืคื™ื ื”ื‘ื•ื˜ื—ื™ื ื‘ื›ืฉืคื™ื”ื ืœื”ื ืฆืœ ืžื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ืช ื“ื™ืŸ, ื•ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืžื›ืฉืคื™ืŸ ื”ืžืกื™ืชื™ืŸ ื•ืžื“ื™ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ืฉืคื™ื”ืŸ, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฆืจื™ื".
ื‘ื“ืคื•ืก ื•ื ืฆื™ื” ื ื“ืคืก: "ื›ื’ื•ืŸ [ื™ืฉื•] ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™".
ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ื”ืขื™ืจื• (ืื•ืช ื™): "ื‘ืก"ื: ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ืื• ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื".
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื”ืขื™ืจื• (ืื•ืช ื ): "ืฆ"ืœ ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื™ืฉื• ื ื•ืฆืจื™ (ื“ืง"ืก ืข"ืค ื“ืคื•"ื™ ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ)".
ื‘'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืง ืกืชืžื• ื•ืœื ื”ืขื™ืจื• ื›ืœื•ื.

ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื–
ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ ืงื–, ื‘:ืชื ื• ืจื‘ื ืŸ ืœืขื•ืœื ืชื”ื ืฉืžืืœ ื“ื•ื—ื” ื•ื™ืžื™ืŸ ืžืงืจื‘ืช. ืœื ื›ืืœื™ืฉืข ืฉื“ื—ืคื• ืœื’ื—ื–ื™ ื‘ืฉืชื™ ื™ื“ื™ื.
ื‘ื“ืคื•ืก ื•ื ืฆื™ื” ื ื•ืกืฃ ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื™ืชื: "ื•ืœื ื›ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ื‘ืŸ ืคืจื—ื™ื ืฉื“ื—ืคื• ืœื™ืฉื• ื‘ืฉืชื™ ื™ื“ื™ื".
ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ (ืื•ืช ื–), ื•ื›ืชื‘ื• ื‘ืกื•ืฃ: "ื”ื•ืฉืžื˜ ืข"ื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื•ื ื•ืกืฃ ื›ืืŸ ื•ื™ื ื™ืฆื™ืื” ืจ"ืค ื•ืก"ื".
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ (ืื•ืช ื’) ื•ื›ืชื‘ื•: "ื‘ื“ืคื•"ื™ (ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ) ื ื•ืกืฃ...".
ืื•ื“ื•ืช 'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ืจืื” ืœืงืžืŸ ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื–.

ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื—
ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื’ืžืจื ืฉื ื ื•ืกืฃ ื‘ื“ืคื•ืก ื•ื ืฆื™ื”: ืจ'ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ื‘ืŸ ืคืจื—ื™ื” ืžืื™ ื”ื™ื? ื›ื“ืงื˜ืœื™ื ื”ื• ื™ื ืื™ ืžืœื›ื ืœืจื‘ื ืŸ ืื–ืœ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ื‘ืŸ ืคืจื—ื™ื” ื•ื™ืฉื• ืœืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืฆืจื™ื. [ื•ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืžื•ื‘ื ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืืจื•ืš ืฉืงืจื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ ื•ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“.]
ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ืชื•ืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื’ืžืจื, ื•ื‘ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ (ืื•ืช ื˜) ื›ืชื‘ื•: "ืžื›ืืŸ ืขื“ ืืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ืฉืžื˜ ืข"ื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื•ื”ื•ืขืชืง ืข"ืค ื•ื™ื ื™ืฆื™ืื” ืจ"ืค ื•ืก"ื".
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ืืช ื–ื” ื‘ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ (ืื•ืช ื’) ื•ื›ืชื‘ื•: "ื‘ื“ืคื•"ื™ (ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ) ื ื•ืกืฃ...".
ื‘'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืง ื”ื•ืกื™ืคื• ืชื•ื›ื ื• ืฉืœ ืงื˜ืข ื–ื” ื•ื”ืงื•ื“ื (ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื–) ื‘ืฉื•ื”"ื’ (ื”ืขืจื” 17) ื‘ื”ืฉืžื˜ืช ืฉืžื• ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“, ื•ื›ืชื‘ื•: "ื‘ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื”ืฉ"ืก ืžื•ื‘ื ืžืงืจื” ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉืœ ืจื‘ ืฉื“ื’ื—ื” ืืช ืชืœืžื™ื“ื• ื‘ืฉืชื™ ื™ื“ื™ื• ื•ื”ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ืงืฉื•ืช ืฉื™ืฆืื• ืžืื•ืชื” ื“ื—ื™ื”...".

ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื”ืขืจื™ื›ื” ื‘ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช
ื‘ื”ื•ืฆืืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืขืงื‘ื™ืช. ื”'ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื” ืงืžื'ืฉืœื”ื, ืฉื‘ื• ืœื ืžื•ืคื™ืข ืžื“ื•ืจ 'ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื', ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืขืชืง ืžื•ืฉืœื ืฉืœ ืฉ"ืก ื•ื•ื™ืœื ื ื•ื”ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ืงื•ื“ืžื•ืช ืœื•, ื›ื•ืœืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจ ื•ื”ืชื™ืงื•ื ื™ื ืฉื ืฉืืจื• ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜ ื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ืขืœื™ื”ื. ื’ื ื‘'ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื” ื‘ืชืจื'ืฉืœื”ื ืœื ืชื™ืงื ื• ื›ืœื•ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื˜ืงืกื˜ ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืžืจื ืื• ืฉืœ ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื™ ื”ื’ืžืจื, ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืžื“ื•ืจ 'ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื'ื”ืขื™ืจื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืงื‘ื™ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืขืชื™ืงื• ืื•ืชื ื‘ืœืฉื•ื ื, ื•ืืฃ ื ืชื ื• ืœืงื•ืจื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืœืœื• ืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœ"ื“ืคื•"ื™ ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฆืขื ื–ื•ืจ".
ื‘ืฉ"ืก 'ื ื”ืจื“ืขื'ืื™ืŸ ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืขืงื‘ื™ืช. ื™ืฉ ืฉื”ื—ื–ื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื” ืœืชื•ืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื’ืžืจื (ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื), ืืžื ื ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื”ืฉืžื™ื˜ื• ื’ื ื”ื ื•ืืฃ ืœื ื”ืขื™ืจื• ืขืœ ื›ืš (ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื“), ืืžื ื ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืงืจื™ื ืœื ื”ื—ื–ื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื” ืœืชื•ืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื’ืžืจื ืืžื ื ื”ืขื™ืจื• ืขืœ ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืขืชื™ืงื• ืื•ืชื ื‘ืœืฉื•ื ื (ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช ื‘-ื’, ื”-ื•). ื•ื™ืฉ ืฉื‘ืื•ืชื• ืขืžื•ื“ ืขืฆืžื• ื”ื—ื–ื™ืจื•ื• ืงื˜ืข ืื—ื“ ืœืชื•ืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื’ืžืจื ื•ืงื˜ืข ืื—ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื• ืจืง ื‘ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ (ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช ื–-ื—). ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืงืจื™ื ืื™ืŸ ืœื•ืžื“ ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืžื” ื ื•ื‘ืขื™ื ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉ"ื‘ืก"ื [=ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื]", ืืžื ื ื™ืฉ ื•ื”ื ืžื’ืœื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืงืฉื•ืจ ืœืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” (ื“ื•ื’ืžืื•ืช ื–-ื—).
ื‘'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืงื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื• ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืืช ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ื›ืœืœ ื•ื›ืœืœ, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืฉืžืฉืžื™ื˜ื™ื ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืงื˜ืขื™ื ืžื”ื’ืžืจื (ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื, ื“, ื•), ื•ื™ืฉ ืฉืžืฆื˜ื˜ื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ (ื•ืœื ืืช ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื’ืžืจื!) ืื‘ืœ ืžืฉืžื™ื˜ื™ื ืืช ืฉืžื• (ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื”, ื—). ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื ื™ืฉ ืฉืžืชืขืœืžื™ื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจืฉ"ื™ ื”ืœื ืžืฆื•ื ื–ืจื™ื (ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื’), ื•ืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืชืžื•ื” ืœืคืจืฉ ืœืคื™ ื”ื’ื™ืจืกื ื”ืžืฆื•ื ื–ืจืช ื“ื•ืงื (ื“ื•ื’ืžื ื‘)[5].
ืืžื ื ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ืฉืœืคืขืžื™ื ื›ืŸ ืžืขื™ืจื™ื ืœืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” ื•ื›ื’ื•ืŸ: "ื”ื’ื™ืจืกื ืฉืœืคื ื™ื ื• 'ืœื›ื•ืชื™ื'ื”ื™ื ืžืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”, ื•ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื•ืžืจ 'ืœื’ื•ื™ื'"(ื‘ื™ืฆื” ื›, ื‘ ื”ืขืจื” 16), "ื›ื™ื“ื•ืข 'ืœืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื'ื”ื•ื ืžืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”, ื•ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื•ืžืจ ื›ืืŸ ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืœื”ืœืŸ 'ืœื’ื•ื™ื'"(ืฉื ื›ื, ื ื”ืขืจื” 24). ืืžื ื ืžืกื™ื™ืžื™ื: "ืœื ืฉื™ื ื™ื ื• ื‘ืคื ื™ื ืืช ื”ื’ื™ืจืกื ืฉืœืคื ื™ื ื•"(ื”ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื™ื, ื ื”ืขืจื” 37).

"ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ ืจืฉ"ื™"ืžื™ื•ืกื“ ืขืœ ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”
ืฉื™ื˜ืชื ืฉืœ ืขื•ืจื›ื™ ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืจืง ื‘'ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื'ื’ื•ืจื ืœื˜ืขื•ื™ื•ืช, ื•ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืฉื ื” (ื™ื–, ื), ืฉืฉื ืื•ืžืจืช ื”ื’ืžืจื ืฉ"ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ... ื™ื•ืจื“ื™ืŸ ืœื’ื™ื”ื ื ื•ื ื™ื“ื•ื ื™ืŸ ื‘ื” ืœื“ื•ืจื•ืช", ืžืคืจืฉ ืจืฉ"ื™ (ื›ืคื™ ืฉื ื“ืคืก ื‘ื“ืคื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœืคื ื™ื ื•): "ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืืฉืจ ื”ืคื›ื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืืœื”ื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื ืœืจืขื”, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืฆื“ื•ืงื™ื ื•ื‘ื™ื™ืชื•ืกื™ื", ื•ื‘ืฆื“ืง ื”ืขื™ืจื• ืฉื ื‘ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืช 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ' (ื”ืขืจื” ืข) ืฉื”ื’ื™ืจืกื ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื: "ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฉื• ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ืืฉืจ ื”ืคื›ื• ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืืœื”ื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื ืœืจืขื”".
ืืžื ื ื‘'ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ ืจืฉ"ื™'ืฉื ืœื™ืงื˜ื• ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจืฉ"ื™ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ืฉ"ืก: "ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ. ืขื›ื•"ื [ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ื™ื‘.]. ืžืฉืจืชื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื” [ืฉื‘ืช ืงื˜ื–.]. ืฉืื™ื ื ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจื–"ืœ ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืฆื“ื•ืงื™ื [ื—ื’ื™ื’ื” ื”:]. ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฉื• ืฉืื™ื ื ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื ืœื‘ืจื›ื” [ืฉื ืข"ืค ืจืฉ"ื™ ื™ืฉืŸ]. ื›ื•ืžืจื™ืŸ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ื [ืข"ื– ื›ื•:]"[6].
ืืžื ื ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ื™ื ืืœื• ืื™ื ื ืืœื ืžืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”, ื•ื›ืš ื–ื” ื™ืจืื” ื‘ืื ื ื’ื™ื” ืื•ืชื ืข"ืค ื”ื“ืคื•"ื™ ืฉืจื•ื‘ื ื ืขืชืงื• ื‘'ื”ื’ื”ื•ืช ื•ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื': "ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืŸ. ืขื›ื•"ืืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฉื•[ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ื™ื‘.]. ืžืฉืจืชื™ืืžืฉื•ืžื“ื™ืŸืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื” [ืฉื‘ืช ืงื˜ื–.]. ืฉืื™ื ื ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจื–"ืœ ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืฆื“ื•ืงื™ื[ื—ื’ื™ื’ื” ื”:]. ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฉื• ืฉืื™ื ื ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ืžื•ื“ื™ื ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื ืœื‘ืจื›ื” ื—ื›ืžื™ื [ืฉื ืข"ืค ืจืฉ"ื™ ื™ืฉืŸ]. ื›ื•ืžืจื™ืŸ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื–ืจื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื’ื•ื™ืื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ื [ืข"ื– ื›ื•:]".

ื‘ึผึธืจื•ึผืšึฐ ื”ึทืžึผึทื‘ึฐื“ึผึดื™ืœ ื‘ึผึตื™ืŸ ืงึนื“ึถืฉื ืœึฐืงึนื“ึถืฉื.





[1]ื‘'ื‘ื™ืช ืขืงื“ ืกืคืจื™ื' (ื—"ื‘ ืขืž' 386) ื ืจืฉืžื• ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ 'ื—ืกืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉ"ืก', ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ืืž"ื“ ืชืก"ื˜. ื•ืœื ืจืื™ืชื™ ื–ื›ืจื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืื—ืจ.
[2]ื‘'ืกืคืจื™ื-ื‘ืœื•ื’'ืฉื (ื”ืขืจื” 28) ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื›ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืืœื• ื ืžืฆื ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘"ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืชื ืฆืœื•ืช ื•ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืžื—ื›ืžื™ ืคืจืื’ ืขืœ ื”ื“ืคืกืช ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“ ืขื ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืค"ื– ืœืค"ืง" (ื ืชืคืจืกื ื‘'ื”ืžื’ื™ื“'ื™"ื— ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืชืจืœ"ื– ืขืž' 199), ื•ื›ืš ื›ืชื‘ื•: "...ื“ืขืช ืžื”ืจืฉ"ืœ ืœื”ื—ืžื™ืจ ืืฃ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืกื›ื ื”. ืืžื ื ืžืขืฉื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื ืฉืžื”ืคื›ื™ืŸ ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื•ืžืฉื ื™ืŸ ืžื“ืจื›ื™ ื”ืฉืœื•ื ื‘ื”ืคืงืขืช ื”ืœื•ืื” ื•ื›ื“ื•ืžื”, ื•ืœื ืฉืžืขื ื• ืคื•ืฆื” ืคื” ืœืขื•ืœื. ื•ื›ืŸ ื ืจืื” ื”ื™ืคื•ื›ื• ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืžื”ืจ"ื ืจื‘ืง"ืฉ [ื‘'ื‘ืืจ ื”ื’ื•ืœื”'] ื‘ืฉ"ืข ื—"ืž ืกื™ ืชื›"ื” [ืก"ืง ืฉ] ื•ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืžื” ืžื•ืขืชืงื™ื ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื".
[3]ืจ"ื™ ืžื•ื ื“ืฉื™ื™ืŸ ืžืฆื™ื™ืŸ ('ืชื•ืจืช ื—ื‘"ื“'ื—"ื‘ ืขืž'ืœื•): "ืกืขื™ืคื™ื ืฉืœื™ืžื™ื ื•ื‘ื™ืื•ืจื™ื ืืจื•ื›ื™ื ืฉื‘'ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก ืื—ืจื•ืŸ'ื ืฉืžื˜ื• ื‘ืขื˜ื™ื™ืช ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”". ื•ื”ื•ื ืขืจืš ืฉื (ืขืž'ืœื–-ืžื–) ืจืฉื™ืžื” ืฉืœ ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื”ืฉืžื˜ื•ืช ื•ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื”.
[4]ื–ื” ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื˜ืขื•ืช, ื•ืื“ืจื‘ื”, ื•ื›ืคื™ ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจื "ื  ืจื‘ื™ื ื•ื‘ื™ืฅ ื‘'ืžืืžืจ ืขืœ ื”ื“ืคืกืช ื”ืชืœืžื•ื“' (ืขืž'ืขื– ื‘ืžื”ื“ื•ืจืช ื”ื‘ืจืžืŸ): "ื•ืชื—ืช ื”ืžืœื” ืชืœืžื•ื“ ื ื“ืคืก ืฉื ื’ืžืจื ืื• ืฉ"ืก ืื• ืœืžื•ื“".
[5]ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื–ื” ื ืžืฆื ื‘'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช (ื™ื•ืžื ื ื•, ื‘ ื”ืขืจื” 26) ื”ืกื‘ืจ ืžืคื•ืจื˜ ืœืžื”ื•ืช ื”ืฆื“ื•ืงื™ื, ืžื™ื•ืกื“ ืขืœ ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจื” "ืืžืจ ืœื™ื” ื”ื”ื•ื ืฆื“ื•ืงื™", ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ื’ื™ืจืกื ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื”: "ืืžืจ ืœื™ื” ื”ื”ื•ื ืžื™ื ื". ื”ืขืจื” ื–ื• ื ืฉืžื˜ื” ืž'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืง ืฉื.
[6]'ืฉื•ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ'ื‘ืœื”"ืง ืฉื ื ืžืฉื›ื• ืื—ืจื™ 'ืขื•ื– ื•ื”ื“ืจ'ื•ื›ืชื‘ื• ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื: "ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืžืกืœืคื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืœื”ืคื•ืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืืœื”ื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื ืœืจืขื”, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื“ื•ืงื™ื ื•ื›ืชื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ื›ืžื•ืชื", ื•ืฆื™ื™ื ื• ืžืงื•ืจื (ื”ืขืจื” 8): "ืขื™ื™ืŸ ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ ืจืฉ"ื™".
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What Did the Willows Ever Do to Deserve Such a Beating? An Original Explanation for a Perplexing Custom

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What Did the Willows Ever Do to Deserve Such a Beating?
An Original Explanation for a Perplexing Custom

By Steven Weinerย 
Steven had the privilege and good fortune of learning from Rav Aharon Lichtenstein ztz"l and Rav Yaakov Meidan Shlit"a at Yeshivat Har Etzion (1982-83) and prior to that from Rav Yisroel Mendel Kaplan ztz"l and other Rabbeim at the Talmudical Yeshiva of Philadelphia.ย  He is currently working on a series of essays on the theme of Shivat Tzion and its contemporary resonance.
Introduction
The seventh day of Sukkot โ€“ the day we now call ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”โ€“ has no special significance in the Torah.ย  The day has no distinctive name; no mitzvot or rules distinguish it from the rest of Sukkot; its sacrifices follow precisely the same pattern as the previous six days; and, unlike the seventh day of Pesach, the seventh day of Sukkot is not even a ืžืงืจื ืงื“ืฉ.ย  In other words, the seventh day of Sukkot appears in the Torah as indistinguishable from the other days of ื”ืžื•ืขื“ื—ื•ืœ.
Nevertheless, the Talmud describes several unique practices that were performed on ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”.ย  One such practice is the custom we still observe today known as ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืช(chibut aravot), beating our ืขืจื‘ื•ืชagainst the ground.ย  What is the meaning of this strange ritual, and does it have any meaningful relationship with ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”?
In this article, we suggest an original answer grounded in a deep connection between the curious practice of beating ืขืจื‘ื•ืชand the teachings of the final ื ื‘ื™ืื™ืwho were active during the early days of the Second Temple, also known as the period of ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ.
A most mysterious ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื
According to the Mishna (Sukka 4:5), on each day of Sukkot the people brought tall ืขืจื‘ื•ืชbranches to the ืžืงื“ืฉand stood them on the ground surrounding the ืžื–ื‘ื—, thereby adorning the ืžื–ื‘ื—with an overhanging canopy of leaves. ย The Gemara (Sukka 44a-44b) concludes that this practice is rooted in a ื”ืœื›ื” ืœืžืฉื” ืžืกื™ื ื™(an oral tradition received at Sinai).ย  However, while the Mishna describes only a ritual performed inside the ืžืงื“ืฉ, the Gemara adds that a custom involving ืขืจื‘ื•ืชalso developed later outside of the ืžืงื“ืฉโ€“ but only on one day of Sukkot, ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”.[1]ย  The Gemara describes this custom using the verb ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜โ€“ understood by Rashi as waving the ืขืจื‘ื•ืช, and by Rambam as beating them e.g. against the floor. ย The familiar custom nowadays is to take a bundle of ืขืจื‘ื•ืชon ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื” and strike it sharply, several times, against the floor or a chair.
What is the source and meaning of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชoutside the ืžืงื“ืฉ?ย  The Gemara (Sukka 44b) calls this practice a ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื(โ€œcustom of the prophetsโ€).ย  Rashi and other traditional commentators understand this as meaning that the custom was instituted by the trio of prophetsื—ื’ื™ ื–ื›ืจื™'ื•ืžืœืื›ื™ , who prophesied during the early Second Temple period and were members of ืื ืฉื™ ื›ื ืกืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”.ย  However, barely one page earlier (44a), the Gemara indicates ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชis a ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉ!ย  Indeed, Rambam and numerous other subsequent authorities who discuss the practice of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชecho the Gemara on both counts, dubbing the practice a ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉas well as a ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื.ย  But performing a ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉis an act of ื“ืจื™ืฉืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ, a response to Yirmiyahuโ€™s cry that poor Zion lies destroyed and abandoned with none seeking her.[2]ย  How could a ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉin the spirit of ื“ืจื™ืฉืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸpossibly make sense in the earliest days of the Second Temple, centuries before its destruction[3]?ย 

Furthermore, why does the Gemara ascribe this custom specifically to the prophets?ย  The intriguing term ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ืis not used elsewhere in the Talmud.ย  While many familiar practices are known as enactments of ืื ืฉื™ ื›ื ืกืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”(the Rabbinic authority during ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ, whose members included ื—ื’ื™ ื–ื›ืจื™ื” ื•ืžืœืื›ื™ as well as other leading scholars of that period), they are not labeled as ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื.ย  What significance is to be found in the Talmudโ€™s attribution of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชspecificallyto the prophets of the early Second Temple?

In addition, the peculiar way we perform this custom โ€“ beating ืขืจื‘ื•ืชagainst the ground[4]โ€“ also cries out for explanation. ย What does beating branches symbolize?ย  Moreover, if the custom is intended to remind us of the ืขืจื‘ื•ืช ceremony inside the ืžืงื“ืฉ, shouldnโ€™t we instead encircle and adorn the ืฉืœื—ืŸwith our ืขืจื‘ื•ืช, just as the ืžื–ื‘ื—was encircled and adorned with ืขืจื‘ื•ืชin the ืžืงื“ืฉ?ย  After all, we commemorate the practice of ื”ืงืคื•ืชin the ืžืงื“ืฉ (Mishna Sukka 4:5) by marching around the ืฉืœื—ืŸin very similar fashion.ย  Why then do we commemorate a ceremony of adorning the ืžื–ื‘ื—by beating our ืขืจื‘ื•ืช against the ground?

A well-known Kabbalistic explanation views ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชas a rite of atonement, and interprets ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”as a day of final judgment and forgiveness.ย  Beating the branches symbolizes, and mystically brings about, a sweetening of the Divine attribute of justice.[5]ย While a mystical interpretation is certainly possible, the Talmud never mentions judgment or atonement regarding ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชor ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”.ย  For those of us who might prefer a less esoteric alternative, I wish to propose an explanation for ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชthat is grounded in Biblical sources, and which also helps to resolve the puzzle of exactly how and why a ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉwas initiated as a ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ืin the early days of ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ.ย  I am not sure that difficulty is tackled by the Kabbalistic approach.

Others have suggested that ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชrepresents a prayer for rain, the sound of beating ืขืจื‘ื•ืชevoking the sounds and sights of a rainstorm.[6]ย  This seems plausible, as the Talmud and Midrash indicate that arba minim and other practices of Sukkot are in part connected to our prayers for rain, which begin at this time of year.ย  However, once again this explanation fails to shed light on why the custom was initiated specifically by the prophets of ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ, or how we can possibly reconcile the seemingly self-contradictory, dual status of ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ืand ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉ.
Affirming a powerful prophecy by acting it out
I believe the key to unlocking the significance of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชmay be found by examining the visions proclaimed by the prophets of ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ.
The Second Temple was built in a climate of intensely mixed emotions. ย The austere structure of ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸpaled against the splendid, opulent ื‘ื™ืช ืจืืฉื•ืŸconstructed by Solomon. ย Celebrating their first Sukkot shortly after rebuilding the ืžื–ื‘ื—, the people of Ezraโ€™s time offered the obligatory holiday offerings ื‘ึผึฐืžึดืกึฐืคึผึธืจ ื›ึผึฐืžึดืฉืึฐืคึผึทื˜ ื“ึผึฐื‘ึทืจึพื™ื•ึนื ื‘ึผึฐื™ื•ึนืžื•ึนโ€“ โ€œby number, according to the obligation of each day.โ€ ย In contrast, Solomon offered such bountiful sacrifices for the inauguration of ื‘ื™ืช ืจืืฉื•ืŸthat the capacity of the ืžื–ื‘ื—was overwhelmed and more space had to be specially consecrated![7]ย Moreover,ื‘ื™ืช ืจืืฉื•ืŸwas graced with a visible appearance of Godโ€™s presence, โ€˜ื”ื›ึผึฐื‘ื•ึนื“, with clouds filling the Temple upon its dedication, just as occurred in the original ืžืฉื›ืŸ.[8]ย  No comparable revelation is reported for ื‘ื™ืช ืฉื ื™.ย  Accordingly, elders who remembered the magnificent First Temple wept loudly over the Second Templeโ€™s modest foundations, and the inaugural ceremony was accompanied by a heart-rending mixture of tears and rejoicing (Ezra 3:12-13).ย  To make matters even worse, Persia soon suspended further rebuilding of the Templein response to slander against the Jews by their envious, non-Jewish neighbors (see Ezra 4).
Against this painful backdrop, the prophet ื—ื’ื™received a stirring vision on the 21st day of Tishrei โ€“ i.e. on ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”, the same date when Solomon had concluded his spectacular ื—ึฒื ึปื›ึผึทืช ื”ึทืžึผึดื–ึฐื‘ึผึตื—ึท for the First Temple centuries earlier:
ื—ื’ื™ ืคืจืง ื‘
(ื) ื‘ึผึทืฉึผืึฐื‘ึดื™ืขึดื™ ื‘ึผึฐืขึถืฉื‚ึฐืจึดื™ื ื•ึฐืึถื—ึธื“ ืœึทื—ึนื“ึถืฉืื”ึธื™ึธื” ื“ึผึฐื‘ึทืจึพื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง ื‘ึผึฐื™ึทื“ึพื—ึทื’ึผึทื™ ื”ึทื ึผึธื‘ึดื™ื ืœึตืืžึนืจ:
In a powerful message of hope and encouragement, God first acknowledged that the Jewish people were demoralized by the humble stature of ื‘ื™ืช ืฉื ื™(โ€œit is nothing in your eyesโ€) in comparison to the glorious Temple and kingdom of Solomon:
(ื’) ืžึดื™ ื‘ึธื›ึถื ื”ึทื ึผึดืฉืึฐืึธืจ ืึฒืฉืึถืจ ืจึธืึธื” ืึถืชึพื”ึทื‘ึผึทื™ึดืช ื”ึทื–ึผึถื” ื‘ึผึดื›ึฐื‘ื•ึนื“ื•ึน ื”ึธืจึดืืฉืื•ึนืŸ, ื•ึผืžึธื” ืึทืชึผึถื ืจึนืึดื™ื ืึนืชื•ึน ืขึทืชึผึธื”? ื”ึฒืœื•ึนื ื›ึธืžึนื”ื•ึผ ื›ึผึฐืึทื™ึดืŸ ื‘ึผึฐืขึตื™ื ึตื™ื›ึถื:
Nevertheless, God urged the people and their leaders to strengthen themselves and take action (continue rebuilding), mindful that He is with them. ย God declared that in but a moment He could shake (ืžึทืจึฐืขึดื™ืฉื) the heavens and the earth, overturn (ื•ึฐื”ึดืจึฐืขึทืฉืึฐืชึผึดื™) powerful empires and deliver their wealth to Israel, and โ€œfill this house with ื›ึผึธื‘ื•ึนื“.โ€[9]ย  The ื›ึผึธื‘ื•ึนื“of the new Temple could then exceed even the ื›ึผึธื‘ื•ึนื“of the First Temple, in both material wealth and Divine presence:
(ื“) ื•ึฐืขึทืชึผึธื” ื—ึฒื–ึทืง ื–ึฐืจึปื‘ึผึธื‘ึถืœ ื ึฐืึปืึพื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง, ื•ึทื—ึฒื–ึทืง ื™ึฐื”ื•ึนืฉืึปืขึท ื‘ึผึถืŸึพื™ึฐื”ื•ึนืฆึธื“ึธืง ื”ึทื›ึผึนื”ึตืŸ ื”ึทื’ึผึธื“ื•ึนืœ, ื•ึทื—ึฒื–ึทืง ื›ึผึธืœึพืขึทื ื”ึธืึธืจึถืฅ ื ึฐืึปืึพื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง, ื•ึทืขึฒืฉื‚ื•ึผ โ€“ ื›ึผึดื™ึพืึฒื ึดื™ ืึดืชึผึฐื›ึถื, ื ึฐืึปื ื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง ืฆึฐื‘ึธืงื•ึนืช:
(ื”) ืึถืชึพื”ึทื“ึผึธื‘ึธืจ ืึฒืฉืึถืจึพื›ึผึธืจึทืชึผึดื™ ืึดืชึผึฐื›ึถื ื‘ึผึฐืฆึตืืชึฐื›ึถื ืžึดืžึผึดืฆึฐืจึทื™ึดื ื•ึฐืจื•ึผื—ึดื™ ืขึนืžึถื“ึถืช ื‘ึผึฐืชื•ึนื›ึฐื›ึถื ืึทืœึพืชึผึดื™ืจึธืื•ึผ:
(ื•) ื›ึผึดื™ ื›ึนื” ืึธืžึทืจ ื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง ืฆึฐื‘ึธืงื•ึนืช: ืขื•ึนื“ ืึทื—ึทืช ืžึฐืขึทื˜ ื”ึดื™ื, ื•ึทืึฒื ึดื™ ืžึทืจึฐืขึดื™ืฉืืึถืชึพื”ึทืฉึผืึธืžึทื™ึดื ื•ึฐืึถืชึพื”ึธืึธืจึถืฅ ื•ึฐืึถืชึพื”ึทื™ึผึธื ื•ึฐืึถืชึพื”ึถื—ึธืจึธื‘ึธื”:
(ื–) ื•ึฐื”ึดืจึฐืขึทืฉืึฐืชึผึดื™ืึถืชึพื›ึผึธืœึพื”ึทื’ึผื•ึนื™ึดืื•ึผื‘ึธืื•ึผ ื—ึถืžึฐื“ึผึทืช ื›ึผึธืœึพื”ึทื’ึผื•ึนื™ึดื ื•ึผืžึดืœึผึตืืชึดื™ ืึถืชึพื”ึทื‘ึผึทื™ึดืช ื”ึทื–ึผึถื” ื›ึผึธื‘ื•ึนื“ืึธืžึทืจ ื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง ืฆึฐื‘ึธืงื•ึนืช:
(ื˜) ื’ึผึธื“ื•ึนืœ ื™ึดื”ึฐื™ึถื” ื›ึผึฐื‘ื•ึนื“ ื”ึทื‘ึผึทื™ึดืช ื”ึทื–ึผึถื” ื”ึธืึทื—ึฒืจื•ึนืŸ ืžึดืŸึพื”ึธืจึดืืฉืื•ึนืŸืึธืžึทืจ ื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง ืฆึฐื‘ึธืงื•ึนืช ื•ึผื‘ึทืžึผึธืงื•ึนื ื”ึทื–ึผึถื” ืึถืชึผึตืŸ ืฉืึธืœื•ึนื ื ึฐืึปื ื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง ืฆึฐื‘ึธืงื•ึนืช:
I suggest our ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ืof beating ืขืจื‘ื•ืชhas its roots in this prophecy.ย  When ื—ื’ื™received these powerful words, cutting to the heart of the difficult challenges that he and his generation faced, heresponded byacting out his own prophecyโ€“ ื•ึฐื”ึดืจึฐืขึทืฉืึฐืชึผึดื™ /ืึฒื ึดื™ ืžึทืจึฐืขึดื™ืฉื,โ€œGod will shake the heavens and the earthโ€ โ€“ by striking the earth sharply with a bundle of ืขืจื‘ื•ืช.[10]ย Using ืขืจื‘ื•ืชpoignantly evoked the similar branches that were used on that same day by the people within the ืžืงื“ืฉto encircle and celebrate their modest, fragile ืžื–ื‘ื—.
Prophets in the Bible often acted out the imagery of their prophecies, as a way of affirming and reinforcing their visions.ย  Ramban notes this phenomenon in his commentary to the Torah (Breisheet 12:6).ย  One famous example is even highly reminiscent of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืช: Elisha instructed the King of Israel to bang arrows on the ground, in order to affirm Elishaโ€™s prophecy that Israel would smite and defeat its enemy (Melachim II 13:16-17). ย It is easy to picture ื—ื’ื™following in Elishaโ€™s path and striking the ground with ืขืจื‘ื•ืชin place of arrows, as an affirmation of his own prophecy ofื•ึฐื”ึดืจึฐืขึทืฉืึฐืชึผึดื™ /ืžึทืจึฐืขึดื™ืฉืand as a prayer to God that it be completely and speedily fulfilled.[11]
Thus, ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืช was from its very inception both ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ืand ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉโ€“ a ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉืจืืฉื•ืŸ!!ย  Our puzzle is solved!ย  ื—ื’ื™ and his colleagues performed ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืช in the purest spirit of ื“ืจื™ืฉืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ.ย  Their ritual expressed a heartfelt plea for the redemptive upheaval (ืจืขืฉ) that they envisioned, so that the full glory of ื‘ื™ืช ืจืืฉื•ืŸ could be restored and exceeded.ย  At the same time, the custom also served as a reminder of Godโ€™s command to ื—ื’ื™ that we strengthen ourselves and act courageously in fulfillment of Godโ€™s mandate to continue rebuilding.
Although ื‘ื™ืช ืฉื ื™was eventually completed, the longed-for glory of Solomonโ€™s era remained elusive. Judea was a vassal state for most of the Second Temple period. ย Godโ€™s presence (ืฉื›ื™ื ื”) was not manifest in ื‘ื™ืช ืฉื ื™, at least in comparison with ื‘ื™ืช ืจืืฉื•ืŸ.[12]ย Therefore, it makes sense that ื—ื’ื™and his colleagues, and eventually all Jews, would annually repeat the custom of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชoutside the ืžืงื“ืฉon ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”, affirming the yearned-for prophecy on its anniversary. ย To this day, in the prayer we recite just before ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชโ€“ known as (โ€œ"ืงื•ืœ ืžื‘ืฉืจ) ืื•ืžืฅ ื™ืฉืขืšโ€“ we plead for complete and imminent redemption by evoking โ€œsoundsโ€ of deliverance including the earth-shaking upheaval around Jerusalem foretold by ื–ื›ืจื™', close colleague of ื—ื’ื™.ย  Like the original prophecy of ื—ื’ื™, and much like ืื ื™ ืžืืžื™ืŸ, our custom of beating ืขืจื‘ื•ืชexpresses both a prayer to God for redemption as well as an uplifting pledge of faith and determination.
Our novel interpretation also explains why the custom of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชoutside the ืžืงื“ืฉ is unique to ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”.ย  The Gemara (Sukka 44a) explains why ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชis performed on only one day of Sukkot, as opposed to all seven days, but never explains the choice of which day.[13]ย According to our explanation, the prophecy of ื—ื’ื™is naturally reenacted and reaffirmed on its anniversary.ย  Intriguingly, Taz[14] suggests ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชis performed on ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”because of its unique holiness: ื™ื•ืชืจ ืงื“ื•ืฉื” ื‘ื™ื•ื ื–ื”.ย  Our proposal offers one way of interpreting that special holiness.ย  ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”, the anniversary of ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืจืืฉื•ืŸื—ื ื›ืช ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—and of ื ื‘ื•ืืช ื—ื’ื™, is a day of yearning for full redemption and the imminence of Godโ€™s presence โ€“ precisely the theme expressed by ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืช.
Counterpoint: who dares scorn the day of small beginnings?
While beating ืขืจื‘ื•ืชoutside of the ืžืงื“ืฉexpressed a deep longing for more completion redemption, adorning the ืžื–ื‘ื—with a beautiful canopy of ืขืจื‘ื•ืชsounded a complementary note inside the ืžืงื“ืฉ. ย I believe this latter practice acquired particular poignancy during the Second Temple period, precisely because nagging feelings of disappointment over the limited โ€œgloryโ€ of that redemption were so palpable from the very start.ย  As cited above from Ezra 3, tears threatened to drown out the shouts of joy heralding the inauguration of the Second Temple.ย  Likewise, ื—ื’ื™in his ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”prophecy hears God say: โ€œWho among you remembers the glory of the First Temple, and what do you think of this house now?ย  It is nothing in your eyes!โ€
In the prophecy of ื—ื’ื™, Godโ€™s primary response to these feelings of disappointment is a promise that the future can be brighter if the people will only be strong and act with courage and faith.ย  However, in 4:10 ื–ื›ืจื™', we hear a somewhat different response: ื›ึผึดื™ ืžึดื™ ื‘ึทื– ืœึฐื™ื•ึนื ืงึฐื˜ึทื ึผื•ึนืช?ย  โ€“ Who scornsthe day of small things?ย  I sense a sharp tone of rebuke in the word โ€œscornโ€: Who dares to scorn the ื’ืื•ืœื”of ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸsimply because it appears โ€œsmallโ€ and modest compared to Solomonโ€™s empire? ย Shouldnโ€™t the people be grateful for even the smallest beginnings of ื’ืื•ืœื”?ย  Perhaps ื—ื’ื™2:3 contains a hint of the same rebuke: is the nascent ื‘ื™ืช ืฉื ื™ really nothing in your eyes?
I suggest that for the Jews of the Second Temple[15], adorning the ืžื–ื‘ื—with ืขืจื‘ื•ืชbecame a deeply meaningful way of expressing gratitude and appreciation for the redemption they enjoyed, imperfect as it was.ย  The ceremony became a way of saying: we will never scorn you, oh ืžื–ื‘ื—, you are precious to us!ย  In fact, the Mishna (Sukka 4:5) records that when the ceremonies in the ืžืงื“ืฉwere completed on ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”, the people shouted: ื™ื•ืคื™ ืœืš ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื™ื•ืคื™ ืœืš ืžื–ื‘ื—(โ€œbeauty is yours, ืžื–ื‘ื—โ€).ย  The reason for this charming salute to the altar is not discussed in the Talmud, and several commentaries have commented on it.[16]ย Personally, I cannot help but hear an unmistakable echo of the โ€œcheers of โ€˜Beauty! Beauty!โ€™โ€ foretold in 4:7 ื–ื›ืจื™':
ืžึดื™ึพืึทืชึผึธื” ื”ึทืจึพื”ึทื’ึผึธื“ื•ึนืœ ืœึดืคึฐื ึตื™ ื–ึฐืจึปื‘ึผึธื‘ึถืœ ืœึฐืžึดื™ืฉืึนืจ ื•ึฐื”ื•ึนืฆึดื™ื ืึถืชึพื”ึธืึถื‘ึถืŸ ื”ึธืจึนืืฉืึธื” ืชึผึฐืฉืึปืื•ึนืช ื—ึตืŸ ื—ึตืŸ ืœึธื”ึผ:
Whatever great mountain [obstacle] lies before Zerubavel โ€“will be flattened!ย  He will present the cornerstone amid cheers of โ€œbeauty, beauty!โ€
This vision of ื–ื›ืจื™'is adjacent to his rebuke against those who scorn the day of small things.ย  The prophetโ€™s message is that when the cornerstone of the new Temple is placed, the proper response is joyous applause of โ€œbeauty, beauty!โ€ ย Do not dare to be so ungrateful as to scorn the modest beginnings of our new ืžืงื“ืฉ, thunders ื–ื›ืจื™'!ย  I suggest that for the people of ื‘ื™ืช ืฉื ื™, the ืขืจื‘ื•ืชceremonyaround the ืžื–ื‘ื—was an opportunity to align themselves with those who gratefully cheered the cornerstone, and to distance themselves from any thoughts of scorn.
Our novel interpretation of the ืขืจื‘ื•ืชceremony in the ืžืงื“ืฉis further supported by the Gemaraโ€™s citation (Sukka 45a) of Tehilim 118:27 โ€“ ืึดืกึฐืจื•ึผึพื—ึทื’ ื‘ึผึทืขึฒื‘ึนืชึดื™ื ืขึทื“ึพืงึทืจึฐื ื•ึนืช ื”ึทืžึผึดื–ึฐื‘ึผึตื—ึทโ€“ as a source for encircling the ืžื–ื‘ื—with a canopy of ืขืจื‘ื•ืช.ย 
In this section of Tehilim, familiar to us from Hallel, just a few verses earlier (118:22) we read:
ืึถื‘ึถืŸ ืžึธืึฒืกื•ึผ ื”ึทื‘ึผื•ึนื ึดื™ื ื”ึธื™ึฐืชึธื” ืœึฐืจึนืืฉื ืคึผึดื ึผึธื”
The lowly stone once scorned by many is now the celebrated cornerstone!ย  This echoes the message and โ€œstoneโ€ imagery of ื–ื›ืจื™' that we read above.ย  As Tehilim 118 continues, we rejoice in this remarkable gift from God (23-24), we bless those who come paying respects to the ืžืงื“ืฉ (26), and we gratefully salute the ืžื–ื‘ื—by encircling it with leafy boughs (27).ย  The Gemaraโ€™s citation of this excerpt from Tehilim as a source for adorning the ืžื–ื‘ื— makes perfect sense.
A Message for Our Own Era
We have suggested a new interpretation for the mysterious custom of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืช, attributed by the Gemara to the prophets of ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ.ย  We suggest the custom arose from confrontation with the incomplete redemption of the Second Temple era.ย  The seemingly bizarre ritual of shaking branches and striking the ground expressed profound longing for (and faith in) a more perfect ื’ืื•ืœื”, by vividly acting out the vision of ื—ื’ื™that one day God will bring a fully redemptive โ€œupheavalโ€ when His presence returns to โ€œshakeโ€ the earth and overthrow all oppressors.ย  This same theme is emphasized even today on ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”in our prayers accompanying ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืช.
At the same time, we have also suggested that the related practice of adorning the ืžื–ื‘ื—with a beautiful canopy of boughs and shouting ื™ื•ืคื™ ืœืš ืžื–ื‘ื—expressed a complementary sense of gratitude.ย  Even as the people of ื‘ื™ืช ืฉื ื™pined for complete redemption, they acknowledged the partial, beautiful redemption which they had merited to receive, and did not dare scorn it.
How fortunate are we in contemporary times, two thousand years after the Second Templeโ€™s destruction, that while still yearning for ืฉืœืžื”ื’ืื•ืœื”, we can once again also express gratitude for an imperfect but precious redemption already granted us. ย Indeed todayโ€™s Jerusalem and Israel are beautiful gifts โ€“ ื™ื•ืคื™ ืœืšโ€“ as well as a work-in-progress.ย  As we continue to beat our branches against the earth crying out for the ืงื•ืœ ืžื‘ืฉืจheraldingour ultimate redemption, and committing ourselves to the national project of rebuilding (materially and spiritually), we dare not forget to appreciate the remarkable gifts God has already bestowed upon us.


[1] It is evident from the Gemaraโ€™s complicated discussion on Sukka 43b-44a, and is universally accepted by all subsequent authorities, that ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชoutside the ืžืงื“ืฉis performed only on ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”.
[2]Sukka 41a, ditto Rosh Hashana 30a, citing Yirmiyahu 30:17.
[3] One might attempt to answer that ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชwas originally a ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื, but after ื”ืžืงื“ืฉื—ื•ืจื‘ืŸit became instead, or in addition, a ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉ.ย  See Tosafot Yom Tov (Sukka 4:5), the only source I have seen so far who addresses this apparent contradiction between ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ืand ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉ. ย But this answer seems problematic.ย  Following Gemara Sukkah 44b, all of the major poskim rule that we recite no blessing on ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชprecisely because it is a mere custom, a ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื.ย  But if the practice was converted after the ื—ื•ืจื‘ืŸinto a ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉ, then why shouldnโ€™t it warrant a blessing, just like holding arba minim after the first day of Sukkot ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉ?ย  Evidently then, even the ื–ื›ืจ ืœืžืงื“ืฉaspect of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชitself only has the authority of a ืžื ื”ื’ ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื, which leaves our question unanswered.
[4] This question is strongest according to Rambam and others who understand ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜as banging against a surface, as is our common practice nowadays.ย  According to Rashi, who interprets ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜as a synonym for waving or shaking, the ritual would not stand out as so unusual per se.
[5] Zohar parshat Tzav (end of 31b); see also Ramban on Bamidbar 14:9.
[6] E.g. Rabbi Dr. Louis Jacobs, in The Jewish Religion: A Companion, reprinted ย here.
[7] Compare Ezra 3:4 versus Melachim I 8:63-64 and Divrei HaYamim II 7:5, 7.
[8]Melachim I 8:10-11, Divrei HaYamim II 7:1-3, Exodus 40:34-35.
[9] Compare Melachim I 8:11 and Divrei HaYamim II 7:1-2 (ื›ึผึดื™ึพืžึธืœึตื ื›ึฐื‘ื•ึนื“ึพื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง ืึถืชึพื‘ึผึตื™ืช ื™ึฐืงึนื•ึธืง).
[10] The same verb ืจืขืฉโ€“ upheaval, literally shaking the earth โ€“ also appears prominently in the visions of final redemption recorded by ื–ื›ืจื™'(contemporary of ื—ื’ื™) and ื™ื—ื–ืงืืœ (slightly earlier, during the Babylonian exile), traditionally read as haftarot during Sukkot.
[11] There is also Midrashic precedent for the notion that shaking the branches of ืืจื‘ืขืžื™ื ื™ืsymbolizes the overthrow of our enemies and the redemption of Israel.ย  See ืกืคืจ ื”ืจื•ืงื—, in the attached source sheets.
[12]Yoma 21b.ย  See also Yoma 9b: because the Jews of that era did not return to Israel en mass โ€œlike a wallโ€, and instead mustered only a relatively weak return, Godโ€™s presence likewise returned only to a limited extent.
[13] Admittedly, the choice of ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”might be arbitrary: might as well pick the last day, if we must pick one.ย  Compare Sukka 43a, explaining why ืขืจื‘ื”was taken in the ืžืงื“ืฉon ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”even on Shabbat.ย  Essentially, the Gemara explains that ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”was selected by Chazal for this purpose not necessarily due to its inherent special character, but perhaps simply because it happens to be โ€œthe last day.โ€ ย Beit Yosef and Bach (O.C. 664) both suggest explaining the assignment of ื—ื™ื‘ื•ื˜ ืขืจื‘ื•ืชto ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”in a similar manner.ย  However, it is more satisfying to find an underlying connection between the day and its practices, if we can.
[14] Taz O.C. 664 note 2; cited by Mishna Berura in note 11.ย  Taz also connects the special holiness of ื”ื•ืฉืขื ื ืจื‘ื”to the performance of seven ื”ืงืคื•ืช in the ืžืงื“ืฉ; we hope and intend ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื”'to explore the meaning of ื”ืงืคื•ืช in a separate, companion essay.
[15] The precise origin of adorning the ืžื–ื‘ื—with a tall canopy of ืขืจื‘ื•ืชis unclear.ย  I am not aware of any indication that it was an essential part of the original ื”ืœื›ื” ืœืžืฉื” ืžืกื™ื ื™of holding extra ืขืจื‘ื•ืชin the ืžืงื“ืฉ.ย  However, for our purposes, it doesnโ€™t really matter if the practice originated during the Second Temple era, or if it was initiated earlier and simply took on additional meaning later.
[16] See Aruch Le-Ner (Sukka 45a); Tiferet Yisrael in ื”ืœื›ืชื ื’ื‘ื™ืจืชืon Mishna Sukka chapter 4.
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The Torahโ€™s Jewish Sense of an Ending: A Yasher Koyach to Moses

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The Torahโ€™s Jewish Sense of an Ending: A Yasher Koyachto Moses
by James A. Diamond
James A. Diamond, Joseph & Wolf Lebovic Chair of Jewish Studies, University of Waterloo. He is currently a Fellow of the Jewish Philosophical Theology Project sponsored by the Herzl Institute in collaboration with the John Templeton Foundation. His latest book is Maimonides and the Shaping of the Jewish Canon, published by Cambridge University Press (http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/religion/judaism/maimonides-and-shaping-jewish-canon).ย This is his first contribution to the Seforim blog.
Every year, the joy I experience on Simchat Torah, is somewhat diminished by the apparent dismal ending of Deuteronomy whose closing we celebrate on the way back to creation and beginnings once again. Rather than climaxing in the rebirth of a nation and entry into the territory long ago divinely promised as a homeland, it ends in death and a frustrated life. Not only does it conclude on a morbid note, but it does so regarding Moses, the noblest protagonist of the narrative, the one who least deserves a premature death. His career begins with his first venture outside the cocoon of a privileged life within the royal palace walls, triggering an empathic act of heroic proportions. Without any knowledge of the Israelite God or the principles and norms that God stands for, Moses reacts violently out of an inherent sense of justice to prevent human suffering inflicted by those he was raised to recognize as compatriots. His subsequent intervention in an aggressive dispute among his own native tribesmen, also to prevent maltreatment of another human being, meets with a โ€˜mind your own businessโ€™ attitude, along with an ominous prospect of betrayal. Rejected by the Hebrew community to which he belonged by birth, and by his adoptive Egyptian community in which he was nurtured, for his opposition to injustice no matter its source or target, he became alienated from both. There remained no choice but to live out his life in exile- a stranger in a foreign land.[1]

A divine commission, plunging him back into that very orbit of rejection to complete what he had started, shattered what little peace he found in an estranged existence. He in fact proved himself to be precisely the most qualified to lead by marshaling repeated arguments against his qualifications for the mission of national liberator, ranging from insignificance (Who am I?)[2] to lack of confidence (They will not believe me)[3] to inarticulateness (I am not a man of words).[4] The politician who doesnโ€™t seek out position, and who is compelled by others to run for public office on the strength of his principled reputation, is the one least likely to fall prey to the seductions of power that accompany that office. In fact the rare objective description of Mosesโ€™ character in the Bible, a humble man, more so than any man on earth,[5]reflects a sense of self-effacement that rules out self-interest as a decisive factor in his public life. Hesitatingly, he accepts and liberates the Israelites only to encounter years of incessant complaint, ingratitude, and rebellion. Ceaseless aggravation and insult escalated to the outrageous extent of the peoplesโ€™ longing toย return to the โ€œcomfortsโ€ of that very hellish existence Moses had fought so courageously to release them from.

This is the man that God summons to the top of a mountain where he can almost touch everything he had dreamed of, fought for, and ardently dedicated himself to, and on whom God then abruptly drops the curtain- and there you shall not cross.[6] It is difficult to see this as something other than unbecoming of God, profoundly deepening the pain of a leader who is on the precipice of his lifeโ€™s goal. Why would God prevent Moses from taking that tiny step necessary to consummate his mission? Why would God withhold a future from the man who was not only instrumental in attaining it, but was the man who originally surrendered his own entire regal future in the name of justice? At the end of the annual cycle of Torah readings, are we to celebrate a malevolent God who punishes his most devoted โ€œfriendโ€ by denying him the joy of completing a quest He Himself imposed upon him? And shouldnโ€™t the punishment fit the gravity of the crime? Slighting Godโ€™s honor (You did not affirm my sanctity in the eyes of the people),[7] surely does not warrant sanctioning it as a capital offence by denying Moses the fruits of his relentless sacrifices when they are within reach. And finally, doesnโ€™t this reading land precisely in the season for forgiveness, a time for the supreme Being to have set a supreme example of mercy, graciousness, and magnanimity, when the simple cost would have been to yield His own glory? God seems to have missed the lesson of Mosesโ€™ humility.

As always though, in the long history of Jews reading their sacred texts, those textsโ€™ problems goad the reader into rethinking what may at first seem obvious or apparent. As the eminent biblical scholar James Kugel points out, the Bibleโ€™s irregularities, in this case morally and theologically troubling aspects, are the grains of sand that irritate the oyster-like Jewish interpretive tradition to construct pearls around them.[8] Perhaps the way to approach this final episode is to reconsider Godโ€™s โ€œpunishmentโ€ as really a favor and concession to Mosesโ€™ character and sensibility. On closer examination it may in fact be graciously consistent with Mosesโ€™ biography, and superbly commemorates who he authenticated himself to be.

The key to these final verses is their casting of Mosesโ€™ relationship to God in terms of equals who meet each other face to face. Earlier in the Torah that same phrase, face toface, captures the familiarity of a normal human conversation, as one man speaks to another.[9] Genuine dialogue can only take place when both participants express their own views, assert their own personalities, and are open to debate. Any conversation wholly dominated and monopolized by one participant amounts to a monologue that promotes only listening but not responding or true engagement. Understood in this way we become mindful of Mosesโ€™ inaugural meeting with God who, for the first time in biblical history, formally introduces Himself by name. However, the puzzling name, I will be whoever I will be (ehyeh asher ehyeh),[10]is a tautological non-name. Rather than a being that is fixed by definition, confined to a particular place, and possessing jurisdiction over an exclusive domain, God tells Moses that He cannot be pigeon holed into a pre-conceived framework that a specific name might enable. God is a being in flux, encountered differently by different human beings in different circumstances. He is an evolving God, rather than a God that simply and immutably is, there to be called on ritually by those privy to His name. As such, this open-ended non-nameconveys a relational being, a God of perpetual becoming, that cannot but be elusive. God is continually shaped and reshaped by the respective partners with whom She establishes relationship. Mosesโ€™ life is paradigmatic of this Jewish spiritual model.

Returning to Mosesโ€™ origins, Godโ€™s awareness of Israelโ€™s suffering in Egypt immediately follows a quick succession of Mosesโ€™ actions, all sharing the common feature of interventions curtailing injustice and oppression. Considering the literary progression of events it is quite plausible to conclude that Mosesโ€™ autonomously motivated acts instigated by his own โ€œseeing,โ€ or evaluation of circumstances, provokes Godโ€™s immediately reported own โ€œseeingโ€ and โ€œknowingโ€ of Israelโ€™s suffering- And God saw the Israelites and God knew.[11]The Jewish Publication Societyโ€™s translation exquisitely captures this nuance with its rendering of โ€œknewโ€ as โ€œand God took notice of them.โ€ In other words, God, who was oblivious to human suffering until then, was inspired to emulate Mosesโ€™ moral activism with His own moral awakening- an act of maturity with which the declaration โ€œI will beโ€ resounds. Rashiโ€™s comment on โ€œGodโ€™s knowingโ€ expressively understands this divine realization as an emergence from apathy, transitioning from โ€œignoring the plight of His creationโ€ to โ€œfocusing His attention on them.โ€ Godโ€™s new consciousness, compelling His own intervention is evoked by Mosesโ€™ example. It is a premiere instance of God imitating man, the inverse of the primary religious mandate of imitatio dei, or emulating God.

Both in the Bible itself and later rabbinic traditions Moses continues in this vein of affecting and shaping Godโ€™s will and actions. When God categorically declares His intentions to wipe out the Israelites in response to their worship of the golden calf, Moses refuses to accept it as an irrevocable fait accompli and argues God out of it. It is as if God announces His genocidal intent in order to provoke a visceral moral response to it - โ€œNu, Moses, what do you have to say?โ€ What God doesnโ€™t want, it seems, is the silent submission to His will so often associated with religious orthodoxy. The Rabbis positively accentuate the boldness of what normally would be taken as insolence by picturing Moses grabbing God and threatening not to release Him until He submits to the demand of a pardon.[12] Moses proves his spirituality precisely by refusing to blindly succumb to divine fiat, and instead, transforming God Herself with his extraordinary devotion to humanity. An opinion in the Talmud even portrays God as lamenting the death of Moses for the loss of the one who mediated between Him and His children.[13]

Indeed, the Rabbis push this idea radically further. The ancient rabbis noted Deuteronomyโ€™s inconsistencies long before modern biblical criticism โ€œdiscoveredโ€ them. However they offered a far more radical and ethically provocative solution than the determination of different authorโ€™s hand at play in the composition of the text. Some laws in Deuteronomy, which contradict previous versions of them in the Torah, are attributed to Mosesโ€™ own creative revisions, which God subsequently endorses. For example, Moses replaces Godโ€™s explicit endorsement of vicarious punishment in Exodus, visiting the iniquity of fathers on children, with a just antithetical version in Deuteronomy- every person shall be put to death for his own crime.[14]Moses doesnโ€™t simply amend and repeal divine legislation and theology to keep it current. He humanizes God.

Against this background the Torahโ€™s ending is recast from a cruel insensitive scene into one that poignantly depicts a final reunion of two dedicated friends who have mutually enriched each otherโ€™s existences. Should Moses have extended his leadership tenure and guided the people into the land he would have been faced with simply more of the same anguish and suffering he had experienced up until this point. It would surely have entailed the wrangling, the complaints, the jealousy, and the power struggles that accompany the burdens of state building. God privileges the visionary Moses with an ocular vision- and God showed him the whole land[15] - that guarantees the posthumous success of his efforts. God does not invite Moses up the mountain to deny him entry into the Promised Land (I have let you see it with your own eyesBut you shall not cross there[16]), but rather to preempt the pain of doing so, while assuring him that his vision will inevitably become a reality. The verse reads better as โ€œI have let you see it with your own eyes and there you need not cross.โ€ Moses is thus spared being mired in the partisan machinations that, as the historical record of the books of Joshua to the end of Kings evidence (let alone the contemporary history of the modern Jewish state!) would certainly have ensued. His record then of autonomy and initiative, even in the face of divine obstinacy, is preserved and remains untarnished by the political intrigue that would have inevitably consumed him to the very end.

The final three verses spell out the absolute uniqueness of Mosesโ€™ three pronged legacy- an unparalleled face to face intimacy of with God; the efficacy of the miracles that the Lord sent him to display in Egypt against Pharaoh; and all the great might and awesome power that Moses displayed before Israel.[17]Mosesโ€™ singularity is first evident in his private life communing with God, and then in two dimensions of his public life, combatting enemies and sustaining friends. Yet, note the subtle distinction made between Moses as Godโ€™s emissary vis-ร -vis the Egyptians in the second last verse, and Moses in his own capacity vis-ร -vis Israel in the last. It may have taken miracles to convince the taskmasters of the Israelite Godโ€™s invincibility to release their repressive stranglehold on their slaves. However, the establishment of a cohesive nation and its continuing viability cannot rest on miracles and otherworldliness. That requires human autonomy and human sensitivity to the social, political, and moral dimensions of a human polis, which Moses qua Moses independently sets in motion for his successors to follow.

Rashiโ€™s Torah commentary analogously ends with a striking midrashic explication of this final verse that accentuates its extraordinary emphasis on the human dimension. Rashi oddly identifies that awesome power wielded by Moses in front of the entire nation of Israel with his breaking of the Tablets at Sinai. As Rashi states, Moses โ€œdecided on his own to break the tablets publically and Godโ€™s will acquiesced to his will, offering him congratulations (yishar kochacha) on breaking them.โ€[18] Rabbinically the Torahโ€™s ending picks up on its patent sense of concentrating on human capability, but empowering it to the utmost extent of overcoming God, of persuading God to defer to the human perspective. In fact this midrash is the very source for the idiomatic salutation of yasher koyach (may your strength be firm) in response to any job well done, particularly those that benefit community. Every single positive human accomplishment and societal contribution then resonates with its origins in Mosesโ€™ exertion of the very outer limits of human capacity.

This is why it is so important for the Torah, despite its minimalist narrative style, to emphasize the seemingly superfluous detail of the hiddenness of Mosesโ€™ grave- no one knows his burial site to this day.[19]Given the phenomenon prevalent in our own time of worshipping dead saints, it is not difficult to imagine the idolization Mosesโ€™ gravesite would have certainly attracted. Shockingly perhaps to many, yet soberly, Moses Maimonides discourages frequenting cemeteries and halachically rules in his legal code against the erection of monuments on the graves of the righteous (tzadikim), โ€œfor their words are their memorials.โ€[20]As Mosesโ€™ life and death illustrate, Judaism must never lapse into a cult of the dead but must be a celebration of life. Mosesโ€™ grave is concealed precisely so that the focus will always be directed toward a life lived and profound teachings transmitted.

There is a well known debate in the Talmud concerning the authorship of the last eight verses in the Torah that record Mosesโ€™ death, with one opinion attributing them to Joshuaโ€™s hand. However, even those that consider Moses to have penned the report of his own death admit that there is a change in its manner of transcription, imagining Moses writing in an inconsolable silence, โ€œwith tears.โ€ Even more moving is the alternative interpretation of this phrase where the words on the parchment were literally inscribed with tears rather than ink. An intriguing halakhic consequence regarding the rules governing the formal reading of these final verses in the synagogue informs this heartrending debate. Its ambiguous Talmudic formulation that a single individual reads themattracts a number of interpretations, but the dominant one is that they must be read as one unit by one person without any interruption (Rashi).[21] Maimonides however interprets it stunningly and uniquely as dispensing with the standard requirement of a prayer quorum of ten males (minyan) for their recitation! His rationale is โ€œsince the sense of these verses refers to what occurred after the death of Moses they have become distinct.โ€[22]Maimonidesโ€™ ruling strikingly affords a normative framework for my philosophically theological reading the Torahโ€™s final scene. His halakha captures the shift in narrative focus and mood of the transition from ink to tears, from the people at the foot of the mountain to Moses alone at its summit, from community to the solitary individual. It promotes a dramatic reenactment of everything I have argued about Mosesโ€™ characterization in these final verses- a demarcation of a private space for the individual, for the emergence of oneโ€™s uniqueness, for a semblance of the relational spiritual intimacy of the face to face, and for the creative power of the single person who stands out from the crowd. By granting halakhic legitimacy to this Torah reading outside the formal framework of a minyan, Maimonides transforms every Simchat Torah into the possibility of momentarily experiencing, however partially, the awesome power of Judaismโ€™s incomparable lonely man of faith.

And so the Torah ultimately climaxes, neither with an impressive tombstone, nor with preternatural transcendence that is the subject of its penultimate verse, but with the spiritual strength and moral defiance of a single human being. It carves out a space for human beings in what can all too often slip into a dangerously God intoxicated universe that overwhelms human autonomy rather than inspire it. It concludes with humanness rather than godliness. That is Mosesโ€™ life and that is his epitaph- a joyful and Jewish sense of an ending.

_____________________________________________________
[1] Exodus 2:22.
[2] Ibid, 3:11.
[3] Ibid, 4:1.
[4] Ibid, 4:10.
[5] Num. 12:3.
[6] Deut. 34:4.
[7] Num. 20:12.
[8] See his seminal study in James Kugel, โ€œTwo Introductions to Midrash,โ€ Prooftexts 3:2 (May 1983): 131-155, reprinted in Geoffrey Hartman and Sanford Budick, eds., Midrash and Literature (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), 95-97.
[9] Exod 33:11.
[10] Exod 3:14.
[11] Ibid, 2:25.
[12] bBerakhot 32a.
[13] bSotah 13b. Here I follow Rashiโ€™s explanation. Maharsha, in his Hidushe Aggadot, actually identifies this talent directly with assuaging Godโ€™s anger against Israel because of the golden calf incident.
[14] On this see Tanhuma, Shofetim 19. There are many other sources where not only Moses, but patriarchs, other prophets, and even rabbinic sages convince God of the correctness of their opinions and actions. To mention just a select few see for example Shemot Rabbah 15:20, Bereshit Rabbah, 44:21; and Midrash Tehillim 4 that commences with the idea that this ability singles out the greatness of the Jewish nation.
[15] Deut. 34:1.
[16] Ibid, 34:4.
[17] Ibid, 34:10-12.
[18] See Sifrei 357 and bShabbat 87b.
[19] Deut. 34:6.
[20] Mishneh Torah, Avel, 4:4.
[21] bMenachot 30a; bBava Batra 15a.

[22] Mishneh Torah, Tefillah, 13:6. Rabad, caustically attacks this ruling as โ€œbizarre," sarcastically questioning โ€œWhere did the quorum go?โ€
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R. Yitchak Al-fasiโ€™s Anti-Qaraite Legislative Activity

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R. Yitchak Al-fasiโ€™s Anti-Qaraite Legislative Activity
By Tzvi H. Adams

R. Yitchak Al-fasi (1013 โ€“ 1103) lived in North Africa and Spain during the Golden Age of Qaraism. It is quite natural that we find many instances of anti-Qaraite legislation in his writings.

Below are four such cases:

1) R. Al-fasi had the shofar blown on Shabbos Rosh HaShanah in his beth din in Fez, Morocco. (See discussion here: here). This ruling and practice baffled many later authorities as it seems to contradict the Talmud Rosh HaShanna 29b. R. Zerachiah Ha-Levi wrote about R. Al-fasiโ€™s opinion โ€“ ื•ื–ื” ืื—ื“ ืžืŸ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืžืชืžื™ื”ื™ื ื”ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ย (ื”ืžืื•ืจ ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ืจโ€ื” ืคโ€ื“).

When we consider that the Qaraites (of whom existed a large community in Fez) did not blow a shofar at all on this holiday because such blowing is not clearly written in the Torah, it is understandable why R. Al-fasi would desire to have shofar blowing take place. Refraining from blowing the shofar would be like surrendering to Qaraite views. We should also recall that Rosh HaShanah can fall out on Shabbos as often as five times in ten years.

Aaron ben Elijah (1328-1369), a prominent Qaraite theologian wrote:
The Rabbanites draw an analogy between the Day of Trumpeting and the Day of Atonement which precedes the Year of the Jubilee, of which it is written: Then shalt thou sound the horn of trumpeting in the seventh monthโ€ฆ on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 25:9). They say just as this trumpeting was done with horn, so also must the trumpeting on the Day of Trumpeting have been done with a horn. (However), we have already explainedโ€ฆ. The Day of Trumpeting, therefore, signifies nothing but the raising of the voice in song and praise, inasmuch as there is no mention of a horn in connection with it. Moreover, why should we draw an analogy between a thing which is obligatory every year, and one which is obligatory only once in fifty years, the year of the Jubilee?โ€ฆย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  (from Leon Nemoyโ€™s Karaite Anthology (1980) pg 173)
Read more on the Qaraite halacha here

2) R. Al-fasi was a key player in the transition of the evening prayer from reshut to chova:

Summary: Since the close of the Talmud, the accepted halacha had been ืชืคื™ืœืช ืขืจื‘ื™ืช ืจืฉื•ืช. Towards the end of the tenth century the custom solidified amongst Qaraites to pray only twice a day. To create a social divide, Rabbanite authorities responded by requiring every Rabbanite follower to pray three times each day. By attending synagogue three times a day one affirmed his allegiance to the Rabbanite camp; also by praying more often than Qaraites, Rabbanites distinguished themselves as being more holy and religious. The Franco-German sages, distant from the Qaraite-Rabbanite scene, upheld the original halacha of ืชืคื™ืœืช ืขืจื‘ื™ืช ืจืฉื•ืช.

Explanation: All early Gaonim ruled aravitis optional (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืคืจืง ืชืคืœืช ื”ืฉื—ืจ). In early Qaraite times there were different views as to how many times a day one should pray. Anan ben David, the early sectarian schismatic, believed that only two prayers should be said: โ€œAnan rejected the maariv โ€“ service, as being only a Rabbinic innovation (See Brochos 27b), and prescribed two daily services only in accordance with the times on which the Temidim were sacrificedโ€ (Jacob Mann, โ€œAnanโ€™s Liturgy and his half-yearly cycle of the reading of the lawโ€, Karaite Studies (1971) edited by Philip Birnbaum pg. 285). R. Saadya Gaon (882- 942), who had many interactions with Ananites, responded by requiring Rabbanites to pray three times- he made maariv mandatory (chova).

This was only the opinion of the Ananites; other sectarian Qaraite-like groups had other views as to the number of daily prayers required. Later, in the mid-tenth century, R. Sherira Gaon (906-1006) maintained the early gaonic psak that maarivis reshut, but wrote that one who does not daven maariv is a โ€œporetz gederโ€ (here).

Late in R. Sheriraโ€™s lifetime and in subsequent years, the view among Qaraites was solidifying that only two daily prayers were required. The Qaraite scholar, Levi ben Yefet, writes in his Sefer ha-Miswot (latter half of the 10th century),II pp.ย  501-502:

ื”ื“ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื›ืžื” ื–ื” ื”ืฉืขืจ- ื›ื‘ืจ ื ืชื—ืœืคื• ื‘ื• ื•ืืฉืจ ืขืœื™ื• ื”ื”ืžื•ืŸ, ื›ื™ ื”ื ื” ืฉืชื™ ืชืคืœืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื ื‘ืงืจ ื•ืขืจื‘ ืฉื ืืžืจ โ€œื•ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ื‘ืงืจ ื‘ื‘ืงืจ ืœื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืœืœ ืœื™ื•ื™ ื•ื›ืŸ ืœืขืจื‘โ€,โ€ฆ ืืฉืจ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื–ื•ืœืช ืืœื” ื”ื•ื ื ื“ื‘ื”โ€ฆ
ื•ืืžืจื• ืžืงืฆืช ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื›ื™ ื—ื•ื‘ื” ื’ื ื”ื™ืโ€ฆื•ืืœื” ื”ื’โ€™ ืชืคืœื•ืชื™ื”ื ืืฉืจ ื–ื›ืจ ืื•ืชื ื“ื•ื“ ืขโ€ื” โ€œืขืจื‘ ื•ื‘ืงืจ ื•ืฆื”ืจื™ื ืืฉื™ื—ื”โ€ฆโ€ โ€ฆ. ื•ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ ืขืžื™ ื›ื™ ืืœื” ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื™ื ืœื ื™ื•ืจื• ืขืœ ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื”โ€ฆ

Shortly thereafter, R. Al-fasi (1013 โ€“ 1103) further enforced the tri-daily prayer system by stating โ€œื•ื”ืื™ื“ื ื ื ื”ื•ื’ ืขืœืžื ืœืฉื•ื™ื™ื” ื›ื—ื•ื‘ื”โ€. A Jew who belonged to the Rabbanite camp distinguished himself from the Qaraites by attending synagogue three times a day. I am preparing a lengthy paper on this topic โ€“ โ€œThe Transition of Aravitfrom Reshut to Hovaโ€“ a Rabbanite Response to Qaraismโ€.

3) R. Al-fasi participated in the anti-Qaraite transition of minor fast days from being voluntary to mandatory.

Though the Gaonim and R. Chananel (990-1053) explicitly say that not eating on the three minor fast days is the individualโ€™s choice (as per the Talmudโ€™s ruling RH 18b- ืื™ืŸ ืฉืžื“ ื•ืื™ืŸ ืฉืœื•ื โ€“ ืจืฆื• โ€“ ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ, ืจืฆื• โ€“ ืื™ืŸ ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ), R. Al-fasi chose to overlook this detail about fast days in his halachic writings. The purpose of this intentional omission was almost certainly to separate Rabbanites from the Qaraite community who did not observe the Rabbanite fasting calendar.

Briefly, here is the sugyain Rosh HaShannah 18b:

ืืžืจ ืจโ€ืฉ ื—ืกื™ื“ื ืžืื™ ื“ื›ืชื™ื‘ (ื–ื›ืจื™ื” ื—) ื›ื” ืืžืจ ื”โ€™ ืฆื‘ืื•ืช ืฆื•ื ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ ื•ืฆื•ื ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ ื•ืฆื•ื ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืขื™ ื•ืฆื•ื ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื‘ื™ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืœืฉืฉื•ืŸ ื•ืœืฉืžื—ื” ืงืจื™ ืœื”ื• ืฆื•ื ื•ืงืจื™ ืœื”ื• ืฉืฉื•ืŸ ื•ืฉืžื—ื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉืœื•ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœืฉืฉื•ืŸ ื•ืœืฉืžื—ื” ืื™ืŸ ืฉืœื•ื ืฆื•ื ืืžืจ ืจื‘ ืคืคื ื”ื›ื™ ืงืืžืจ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉืœื•ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœืฉืฉื•ืŸ ื•ืœืฉืžื—ื”, ื™ืฉ (ื’ื–ืจืช ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืช) ืฉืžื“ ืฆื•ื, ืื™ืŸ (ื’ื–ืจืช ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืช) ืฉืžื“ ื•ืื™ืŸ ืฉืœื•ื ืจืฆื• ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ ืจืฆื• ืื™ืŸ ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸืื™ ื”ื›ื™ ื˜โ€ื‘ ื ืžื™ ืืžืจ ืจื‘ ืคืคื ืฉืื ื™ ื˜โ€™ ื‘ืื‘ ื”ื•ืื™ืœ ื•ื”ื•ื›ืคืœื• ื‘ื• ืฆืจื•ืช
The Gaonim:

โ€“ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื–ื”, ื‘ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•, ืฉืื™ืŸ ืฉืžื“ ื•ืœื ืฉืœื•ื, ืจืฆื• ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ ืœื ืจืฆื• ืื™ืŸ ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸโ€ฆ. ื”ื™ืœื›ืš ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ืฆื•ืžื•ืช, ืžื™ ืฉืื™ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฆื•ื ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ืš ื›ืœื•ืื•ืื™ื ื• ืžื—ื•ื™ื™ื‘ ื‘ื”ืŸ. (ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื’ืื•ื ื™ื ื’ื ื–ื™ ืงื“ื ื—โ€ื’ ืขืžโ€™ 43)
R. Chananel:

ืฉื™ืฉ ืฉืœื•ื โ€“ ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ื›ืœ ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืงื“ืฉ ืงื™ื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœืฉืฉื•ืŸ ื•ืœืฉืžื—ื”. ื™ืฉ ืฉืžื“ โ€“ ืฆื•ื.ย  ืื™ืŸ ืฉืžื“ ื•ืื™ืŸ ืฉืœื•ื โ€“ย  ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืขืชื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื–ื”, ืจืฆื• ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ ืจืฆื• ืื™ืŸ ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ. ื•ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืื ืจืฆื• ืฉืœื ืœื”ืชืขื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ืื™ืŸ ื—ื•ื‘ื” ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ, ืœืคื™ื›ืš ืื™ืŸ ืฉืœื•ื—ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ืฆืื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ืŸ. (ืจื‘ื™ื ื• ื—ื ื ืืœ โ€“ ืจืืฉ ื”ืฉื ื” ื™ื—, ื‘)
ื”ืจื‘ ื‘ืจื’โ€™ืœื•ื ื™ ื–โ€ืœ ื›ืชื‘ ืžโ€ื˜ ืงื‘ืขื•ื ื”ืื™ื“ื ื ื—ื•ื‘ื”? ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืงื‘ืœื”โ€ฆ (ืฉืขืจื™ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืกื™ืžืŸ ืขื–)

By the time of Ramban (1194โ€“c. 1270) and later authorities mandatory fasting was well established in Spain. (Rashba, though, is an exception- he still considered the fasts optional.)

About the practice of the Qaraites, Levi ben Yefet, writes in his Sefer ha-Miswot (latter half of the 10th century),III pg 452: Levi be writes

"ืฆื•ื ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ ื•ืฆื•ื ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ ื•ืฆื•ื ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืขื™"ื•ื’ื•'. ... ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™... ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื•ื ืืฉืจ ืกืžืš ื‘ื• ื ื‘ื•ื›ื“ื ืฆืืจ ืขืœ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื ื•ื”ืฆืจ ืขืœื™ื” ื•ื‘ื ื” ืขืœื™ื” ื“ื™ืง, ืฉื ืืžืจ "ื•ื™ื”ื™ ื‘ืฉื ื” ื”ืชืฉื™ืขื™ืช ืœืžืœื›ื• ื‘ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจ ืœื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ื ื ื‘ื›ื“ื ืืฆืจ ืžืœืš ื‘ื‘ืœ ื•ื›ืœ ื—ื™ืœื•"ื•ื’ื•'
ื•ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉื ื™ โ€“ ื•ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ื ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ืชืฉื™ืขื™ ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ ืฉื ืืžืจ "ื‘ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ ื‘ืชืฉืขื” ืœื—ื“ืฉ ื•ื™ื—ื–ืง ื”ืจืขื‘ ื‘ืขื™ืจ ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื—ื ืœืขื ื”ืืจืฅ ื•ืชื‘ืงืข ื”ืขื™ืจ".
ื•ื”ืฆื•ื ื”ืฉืœืฉื™ โ€“ ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืขื™ ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ ืžืคื ื™ ื›ื™ ืืžืจ ื‘ื• "ื‘ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ ื‘ืฉื‘ืขื” ืœื—ื“ืฉ ื”ื™ื ืฉื ืช ืชืฉืข ืขืฉืจื” ืฉื ื” ืœืžืœืš ื ื‘ื•ื›ื“ื ืฆืจ ื‘ื ื ื‘ื•ื–ืจืื“ืŸ ืจื‘ ื˜ื‘ื—ื™ื ืขืžื“ ืœืคื ื™ ืžืœืš ื‘ื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื, ื•ื™ืฉืจื•ืฃ ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื™ื•ื™".
ื•ื”ืฆื•ื ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ โ€“ ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ ืžื–ื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ื”'ืฉื ืืžืจ "ื•ื‘ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ ื‘ืื—ื“ ืœื—ื“ืฉ"ื•ื’ื•'. ื•ื”ื’ืจืžืชื• ื•ื’ื ื”ื’ืจืžืช ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื–'ื”ื•ื ืฉืจื™ืคืช ื‘ื™ืช ื™ื•ื™ ืžืคื ื™ ื›ื™ ืืžืจ ืื—ืจื™ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื "ื•ื™ืฉืจื•ืฃ ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”'ย  ืฉื ื™ ืคืขืžื™ื.
ื•ื”ืฆื•ื ื”ื”' - ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ื ื›ื“'ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ืฉื‘ื™ืขื™ ืฉื ืืžืจ "ื•ื‘ื™ื•ื ืขืฉืจื™ื ื•ืืจื‘ืขื” ืœื—ื“ืฉ ื ืืกืคื• ื‘ื ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืฆื•ื ื•ื‘ืฉืงื™ื"ื•ื’ื•'.
... ื•ื™ืฉ ื‘ืืœื” ื”ืฆื•ืžื•ืช ื—ืœื•ืฃ. ืžื”ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ื ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืงืจืื™ื, ื•ืžื”ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืงืจืื™ื ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืขื ื ื™ื,...
ื”ื“ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืฆื•ืžื•ืช ืืฉืจ ื™ืฆื•ืžื• ืื•ืชื ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ื ... ื•ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ื ื™ื–'ื‘ืชืžื•ื– ื•ื™ื•ื ื˜'ื‘ืื‘, ื•ื™ื•ื ืขืฉืจื” ื‘ื˜ื‘ืช... ื•ืื•ืœื ืœื ื ืฆื•ื ืื•ืชื ืขืžื”ื...
Dr. Isaac Gottlieb summarizes (here):

The Karaite calendar does not take note of our holidays of Hanukkah, Tu-bโ€™Shvatโ€ฆ because these days are not mentioned in the written Torah. Three of the four fast days associated with the destruction of the First Temple are observed in Karaite tradition, but on different days from us: the โ€œfast of the fourth month,โ€ which we observe on the 17th of Tamuz, they mark on the 9th of Tamuz (cf. II Kings 25:3-4); instead of the Ninth of Av the Karaites fast on the 7th and the 10th of Av (II Kings 25:8; Jer. 52:12-13); instead of the Fast of Gedaliah, which we observe on the 3rd of Tishre, the Karaites fast on the 24th of Tishre (Neh. 9:1). The fast on the 10th of Tevet is the only one which they observe on the same date (Jer. 52:4-5). They do not observe the Fast of Esther but celebrate Purim for two days, and on leap years they only observe it in the first month of Adar.

Rabbi David Bar-Hayimโ€™s view is that the transformation from optional to mandatory fasting occurred because later rishonim believed they lived in time of ืฉืžื“โ€“ hence fasting was obligatory. More recent authorities only cited the words of these late rishonim and that perspective became the norm. Here is his discussion of this topic: โ€œThe Four Fasts and their Halakhic Status Todayโ€. Rabbi Bar-Hayim suggests that the situation today (the political climate โ€“ war vs. peace) is not different than that of the Gaonim and R. Chananel โ€“ ืื™ืŸ ืฉืžื“ ื•ืื™ืŸ ืฉืœื•ื.ย  This assessment has practical halachic implications. I suspect, though, that the transformation was not only because of โ€˜wartimes versus peaceful timesโ€™ but was also political and anti-Qaraite.

Rambam also omits this Talmudic leniency of ืจืฆื• ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ ืจืฆื• ืื™ืŸ ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ. The Halachotdigest of R. Al-fasi and MishnahTorah of Rambam were both intended to replace Talmud study for the lay population. By ignoring the leniency of permissibility of skipping the minor fasts, these sages made sure their general readers would assume fasting is obligatory- thereby segregating them from the Qaraite communities who did not fast on Rabbanite fast days.

The language used by R. Y Barzillai, โ€œืงื‘ืขื•ื ื”ืื™ื“ื ื ื—ื•ื‘ื”โ€, is similar to that employed by R. Yitzchak Al-fasi and others โ€“ โ€œื•ื”ืื™ื“ื ื ื ื”ื•ื’ ืขืœืžื ืœืฉื•ื™ื™ื” ื›ื—ื•ื‘ื”โ€ โ€“ in explaining why, in the eleventh century, Jews were required to pray the evening prayer every night (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ืคืจืง ืชืคืœืช ื”ืฉื—ืจ). This may hint at the same reason for change- to separate Rabbanites from Qaraites. See Case#2.

Furthermore, Smaโ€k 96 (R. Yitchak Corbeil- 13th century France) and Kolbo Laws of Taanith (Provence 14th century) cite the Gemara ืจืฆื• ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ ืจืฆื• ืื™ืŸ ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ. These authors only cite practical matters- it is clear they still considered the minor fasts optional. The great R. Tam was asked if a pregnant woman needs to fast on the minor fasts. He responded by citing the Talmud โ€“ that these fasts are optional (cited in Hagaath Maimoni Laws of Taanith 5).

These European sages lived far from Qaraites and therefore had no need to respond to sectarian practices.

My suggestion โ€“ that the transformation of the three minor fasts from being optional to mandatory was a reaction to Qaraism โ€“ is novel and requires some more investigation and researchโ€ฆื•ื”ืžืฉืš ื™ื‘ื•ื.

4) R. Yitchak Al-fasi, and his teacher, R. Chananel, created a six hour waiting requirement between meat and dairy in the early eleventh century โ€“ thereby limiting the social participation of Rabbanites with Qaraites. This was not the common practice in Judaism until their new legislation. I elaborated on this in โ€œWaiting Six Hours for Dairy- A Rabbanite Response to Qaraismโ€ โ€“ ย here.


โ†ง

Review of James A. Diamond, โ€œMaimonides and the Shaping of the Jewish Canonโ€ (2014) by Menachem Kellner

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Review of James A. Diamond, โ€œMaimonides and the Shaping of the Jewish Canonโ€ (2014)
by Menachem Kellner

Menachem Kellner is Chair of the Department of Philosophy and Jewish Thought at Shalem College, Jerusalem, and the Wolfson Professor Emeritus of Jewish Thought at the University of Haifa, where, among many other posts, he served as Dean of Students and Chair of the Department of Maritime Civilizations, and founding director of Be-Zavta, a program in Jewish enrichment. His most recent book is Menachem Kellner: Jewish Universalism, edited by Hava Tirosh-Samuelson and Aaron Hughes in Brill's Library of Contemporary Jewish Philosophers, and is availableย here. Bar-Ilan University Press is about to publish his next book, Gam Hem Keruyim Adam: Ha-Nokhri be-Einei ha-Rambam.

This is Professor Kellnerโ€™s second contribution to the Seforim blog. His previous essay, โ€œWho is the Person Whom Rambam Says Can be โ€˜Consecrated as the Holy of Holiesโ€™?โ€ was published in 2007 and is available here.

In People of the Book: Canon, Meaning, and Authority (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997) Moshe Halbertal distinguishes between normative and formative canons. Texts which are canonical in the normative sense are obeyed and followed; they provide the group loyal to the text with guides to behavior and belief. Formative canonical texts, on the other hand, are "taught, read, transmitted, and interpreted โ€ฆ they provide a society or a profession with a shared vocabulary" (p. 3).

In his brave new book, Maimonides and the Shaping of the Jewish Canon (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014), James A. Diamond, the Lebovic Professor of Jewish Studies at the University of Waterloo (link), sets out to prove that "at virtually every critical turn in Jewish thought, one confronts Maimonidean formulations in one way or another" (p. 263). Diamond's claim is actually much stronger than that. He sets out to prove that the collected works of Rambam, alongside the Bible, Talmud, and Zohar "comprise the core spiritual and intellectual canon of Judaism" (p. 266).

Diamond makes his argument through a series of case studies, each one focusing on a different thinker: Ramban, Ritva, Abravanel, ibn Gabbai, Spinoza, Hermann Cohen, Neziv, and finally Rav Kook. These chapters constitute "a discussion of the long and continuing history of exegetical entanglements with Maimonidean thoughtโ€ฆ" (p. 26).

Diamond sets the stage with two chapters on Rambam himself, in which he makes a subtle and sophisticated argument to the effect that Rambam set the agenda for the future of Jewish thought by providing an "inextricable link between philosophy, law, and narrative" (p. 11).

In these two chapters Diamond continues the methodological breakthroughs of his two previous books on Rambam, Maimonides and the Hermeneutics of Concealment (Albany: SUNY Press, 2002) and Converts, Heretics, and Lepers: Maimonides and the Outsider (Noted Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 2007). The first book has literally changed the face of academic Maimonidean studies and deserves to be much better known outside of the academy. The book exemplifies a sophisticated methodology for reading the Guide of the Perplexed. This approach may be characterized as follows: Diamond takes Rambam at his word โ€“ to wit, that he was writing a book of biblical and rabbinic exegesis โ€“ and cleverly and closely follows Rambam's exegesis of his sources. It takes a person of rare abilities to do this as well as Diamond does; he is blessed with an impressive mixture of native literary abilities combined with extensive reading of rabbinic sources and rigid training in law and philosophy (he was originally a lawyer before realizing that life could be much more interesting with a PhD in philosophy). Prof. Diamond's reading of Rambam's exegesis of his sources is extremely convincing. Diamond also follows my wife's safe advice. She constantly reminds me: remember to tell your students, Rambam was also a rabbi (and not just a philosopher).

Diamond's second book consists of a series of extraordinarily close readings of core texts of Rambam's, readings which illuminate the delicate and multilayered interplay between philosophical and religious ideas in his thought. As in his previous work, Diamond convincingly illustrated the way in which Ramabam carefully chooses, subtly interprets, and circumspectly weaves together rabbinic materials to address philosophers and talmudists alike, each in their own idiom.

In his first two books, Diamond takes a linguistic pebble and throws it into the sea of Rambam's thought, following the ripples where they lead: verses connect to verses and to rabbinic glosses upon them, which in turn lead to further exegetical and philosophical ripples. In this, his third book, he uses the same subtle and learned method to analyze the ways in which eight prominent post-Maimonideans from the Thirteenth Century through the Twentieth engage Rambam's thought, in order to break away from it, or break it away from its medieval context to adapt it to the ages in which they lived (p. 5).

Diamond's claim is stronger than the oft-noted influence of Rambam on radically different thinkers. Indeed, there is hardly a Jewish thinker who does not claim to represent Rambam in his or her world โ€“ as I often say, the two greatest misrepresenters of Rambam in the 20th century were the Rebbe of Lubavitch and the Rebbe of (Yeshayahu) Leibowitz. We have recently been treated to a new-agish Rambam by Micah Goodman (Maimonides and the Book That Changed Judaism: Secrets of the Guide for the Perplexed) and (once again!) to a Kabbalistic Rambam in Mevikh Maskilim (!) by Rabbi Shlomo Toledano. In the chapters of this book James Diamond does more than show how various thinkers have appropriated Rambam to their needs โ€“ he demonstrates how Rambam was a formative influence on the Jewish self-perceptions of a wide variety of central Jewish thinkers.

In the first of these chapters, on Ramban ("Launching the Kabbalistic Assault"), Diamond shows how Ramban's theologyย  "can only be fully appreciated in its counterexegesis, reaction to, and reworking of Maimonides' own theology and philosophical exegesis" (p. 69). Fully aware of what Rambam was doing, Ramban sought to present an alternative vision of Judaism (just as I have argued elsewhere, Rambam himself sought to present an alternative vision of Judaism to that which found expression in Halevi's Kuzari). Thus, for example, for Ramban "Jewish history inheres in Abraham's biography both physically and metaphysically, to be played out by his biological descendants, [while] for Maimonides Abraham's life provides a manual on how to qualify as his ideological offspring" (p. 74). In this typically beautifully written and densely packed sentence, Diamond presents one of the core differences between the Judaisms of Rambam and of Ramban. Students of the two rabbis will see here hints at Ramban's view of Torah stories as prefiguring Jewish history (itself a cunning subversion of a classic Christian trope) and at Rambam's opposed essential lack of interest in history per se (even Jewish history) and his construal of Judaism as a community of true believers, defined by ideology, not by descent.

This is just one of the many ways in which James Diamond teases out the essential differences between Rambam and Ramban. I would like to stress that as much as Ramban was clearly aware of these differences (as brilliantly elucidated by Diamond), and as much as he rejected Rambam's picture of Judaism, Voltare- like he still defended Rambam's right to be wrong. It would be wonderful if today's rabbinic leadership would take a "musar haskel" from Ramban's behavior in this matter.

Rabbi Yom Tov Ishbili (Ritva) belonged to Ramban's school, and I would like to think that one of the lessons he learned from Ramban was to defend Rambam without agreeing with him, as he does in Sefer ha-Zikkaron, closely analyzed by Diamond in chapter four, "Pushing Back theย  Assault." Diamond detects in Ritva an "ideological retreat from Nahmanideanism toward Maimonideanism" (p. 88). This "retreat" is not a rejection of the world of Ramban,ย  but, rather, an attempt to salvage "rationalism and reserve a space for it alongside Kabbalah within Jewish practice and belief" (p. 113).

In chapter five we are presented with a Don Isaac Abravanel "who struggled with Maimonides' thought throughout his prolific career" (p. 116); a specific locus of that struggle was Rambam's account of the Akedah. Abravanel, it has famously been reported, used to end lectures on Rambam in Lisbon with the statement: "these are the views of Rabbenu Moshe, but not those of Moshe Rabbenu." Here again, we see an attempt to keep Rambam within the fold, without denying the challenges he presents to more conservative interpretations of Judaism. It is one of the most important contributions of Diamond's book that time and again he shows us how medieval thinkers rejected much of what Rambam taught, without denying that he taught it. Comparing the approaches of Ramban, Ritva, and Abravanel to the furor surrounding the so-called Slifkin affair and the writings of many contemporary rabbis, makes one almost believe in the decline of the generations.

The chapter which I personally found most interesting was about Meir ibn Gabbai, the Sixteenth Century kabbalist, largely because he is the figure treated by Diamond about whom I knew the least. Chapter Six, "The Aimlessness of Philosophy" examines ibn Gabbai's Avodat ha-Kodesh, one of the most popular works of pre-Lurianic Kabbalah. This kabbalistic digest is "inextricably intertwined with a withering critique ofย  Maimonidean rationalism" (p. 138), further evidence forย  Moshe Idel's claimย  that Rambam was a "negative catalyzer" for kabbalistic conceptions. Ibn Gabbai's world was thus one "where Maimonides' thought inspired fierce rejection, while ironically at the same time providingย  a fertile repository of ideas, exegesis, and terminology for the advancement of kabbalistic thought and interpretation" (p. 137).

Rambam was so important for a figure like ibn Gabbai that the latter felt forced to accept the widespread legend concerning Rambam'sย  alleged "conversion" to Kabbalah at the end of his life. That this legend was so widespread, and that ibn Gabbai and many others contributed to spreading it, is powerful support for the thesis of Diamond's book about the centrality of Rambam in forming the Jewish canon. Rambam is so important and central a figure, that a Kabbalist cannot allow him to remain outside the fold.

I will leave discussions of the last four chapters of Maimonides and the Shaping of the Jewish Canon (on Spinoza, Hermann Cohen, Neziv, and Rav Kook) to specialists in modern Jewish thought. To this reader, at least, they appeared every bit as insightful and illuminating as the six chapters outlined here. One comment, however begs to be made. Diamondโ€™s concluding chapter deals with a twentieth century writer one rarely sees, if ever, mentioned alongside Maimonides -- Franz Kafka. Intriguingly, Diamond's argument is that even a contemporary, secular, Jewish diarist, thinker, and novelist is both made possible and understood better when read against the grain of Maimonides. In this case ย Diamond argues that Kafka, the pessimistic prophet of gloom and alienation in the modern age, takes Maimonidesโ€™ negative theology to its logical extreme and leaves us withย a sobering thought ย  especially in a post-Shoah age. If Maimonidesโ€™ย โ€œtheology of negation ends in the breakdown of both intellect and language,โ€ then perhaps it also โ€œcan all too easily lead to a theology of brokenness and alienation, and to the parables of Kafka.โ€


Did Maimonides indeed shape the Jewish canon alongside Bible, Talmud, Midrash, and Zohar? Each reader of this remarkable book will have to make up her or his mind on this issue. What cannot be denied is that each such reader will finish the book enriched, enlightened, and challenged.
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Please note

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The Seforim Blog is proud to provide a platform for freewheeling debate in a productive spirit. We do not moderate comments, because there has been no need. While tongues sometimes get sharp, we believe that overall the mood in the comments section has been in the spirit of comaraderie, with our readers and commenters sharing the bonds of a common interest and love of Jewish learning.

Recently, to our dismay, the comments section has been transformed to something else. We cannot accept a situation where every post becomes a mean-spirited argument. We have waited and tolerated this long enough, hoping to see whomever should consider themselves addressed by this post come to this realization on their own and use their considerable scholarly talents wisely and cease dragging the Seforim Blog down.

Please view this as a polite but firm request and a warning. If nothing changes soon, then unfortunately we will have to revoke the commenting privileges of whomever is responsible.ย 

Sincerely,
The Seforim Blog administrators.
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Announcement of new works of Rishonim

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Announcement of new works of Rishonim

By Eliezer Brodt

ืžื’ื ื–ื™ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื›ืจืš ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื”ื”ื“ื™ืจ ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžื‘ื•ืื•ืช: ืฉืžื—ื” ืขืžื ื•ืืœ, ื”ื•ืฆืืช ืžืงื™ืฆื™ ื ืจื“ืžื™ื, 512 ืขืžื•ื“ื™ื.

I am very happy to announce the publication of an important work which I have been eagerly waiting for, Professor Simcha Emanuel of the Hebrew University's Talmud department's volume of texts from the "European Genizah" (volume one). This volume was just printed by Mekitzei Nirdamim and is being sold by Magnes Press.



New texts from Rishonim are high up on my list of favorite publications, all the more so when they are edited by Professor Simcha Emanuel. Professor Emanuel is considered one of the today's greatest experts in Rishonic literature. He has produced numerous special works [such as this recent work, this, thisand my favorite] and articles of both texts and material about them for quite some time. [Many of which are available here] All of which are of very high quality, showing an incredible breadth and depth in the material at hand. One area of specialty of his is finding long-lost works; this new volume continues this trend. Starting with an important introduction to the background and importance of the Genizah, it includes numerous newly discovered texts of Rishonim, with introductions and background of their importance and proof of identification.

Here are the Table of Contents of this special work:


For a sample e mail me at Eliezerbrodtatgmail.com.

The book can be purchased via Magnes Press or through me at: Eliezerbrodtatgmail.com.

Also take note of a special sale of numerous titles at Magnes Press.

Copies of this work will be arriving at Biegeleisen shortly.
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R. Zevin, R. Ovadia Yosef, Pras haRav Kook and a Minor Case of Censorship

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R. Zevin, R. Ovadia Yosef, Pras haRav Kook and a Minor Case of Censorship
by Jacob D.

At the end of R. Zevin's introduction to his Sofrim u-Sefarim [1] we read -



















In R. Zevin's footnote we see that one of the works that he wanted to review but didn't yet get to was R. Ovadia Yosef's two volumes of Yabia Omer. As someone who enjoys R. Zevin's pen immensely (both his style and substance, especially the way he analyzes books and their authors) [2], and as someone that studies from R. Ovadia Yosef's prolific halakhic literature quite often, I was curious to know if R. Zevin ever ended up writing a review on any โ€‹of โ€‹R. Ovadia Yosef's works. For this I turned to R. Zevin's grandchildren.[3] In a phone conversation with R. Nahum Zevin (of Kiryat Eliyahu,Haifa) I was told that although he has some unpublished R. Zevin material, โ€‹and also existing areโ€‹ some highly critical book reviews that R. Zevin felt should remain unpublished,[4] he doesn't think anything was written about R. Ovadia Yosef.

In R. Ovadia Yosefโ€‹'sโ€‹ Yabia Omer we find among the numerous approbations this -



Not exactly an approbation but an explanation why the work deserved the R. Kook prize โ€‹ofโ€‹ Torah literature for the year 571โ€‹5โ€‹ (1955). I have no doubt that although R. Zevin signs his name along with two other judgesโ€‹,โ€‹ the explanation was penned by R. Zevin himselfโ€‹โ€‹. From the three periods beforeโ€‹ theseโ€‹ few sentences โ€‹โ€‹it seemed to me that more had been written than the few lines which were โ€‹printed in the โ€‹book. I wanted to find the rest of the storyโ€‹ (although I wasn't expecting a full review essay because R. Zevin wrote in hisย  Sofrim u-Sefarim published in 1959 that he hadn't gotten around to reviewing this work)โ€‹ and I spoke with the department in the Tel Aviv municipality that handles these prizes (see here). They said โ€‹that โ€‹they don't have any additional information or documents that pertain to this but โ€‹that โ€‹I should contact the Tel Aviv city archive (here) and they should be able to help. After speaking with the kind staff of that archive I receive an email with two documents and a short message-











































































ืื ื• ืฉื•ืœื—ื™ื ืœืš ืกืจื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ืขืœ ื”ืขื ืงืช ื”ืคืจืก ืœืจื‘ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื” ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื•ื›ืŸ ืกืจื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ืžื›ืชื‘ื• ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื•ืŸ ืœืจื‘ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื• ืขืœ ื–ื›ื™ื™ืชื• ื•ืžื‘ืจืš ืื•ืชื• ืขืœื™ื”. ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื ื• ื ื™ืžื•ืงื™ื ืžืคื•ืจื˜ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ

ื‘ื‘ืจื›ื”,
ืจื‘ืงื” ืคืจืฉืœ-ื’ืจืฉื•ืŸ
ื”ืืจื›ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื™ืจื•ื ื™


By now I kind of gave up, and forgot about the matter.

A short while later I get a call from my friend Israel Mizrahi of Judaicaused.comย (and theย Musings of a Jewish Booksellerย blog). He tells me that I'm not going to believe it but in a recent shipment from Israel of some old books he found a little booklet printed for one years Pras haRav Kook. Upon opening it he sees that it was the booklet printed in the year 571โ€‹5โ€‹ (Summer 1955)โ€‹,โ€‹ the year that Yabia Omer was awarded the prizeโ€‹โ€‹!









































โ€‹For a small fee I purchased the booklet โ€‹and although I found โ€‹itโ€‹ quite interestingโ€‹,โ€‹ unfortunately nothing really more had been written about Yabia Omer that hadn't beenโ€‹ โ€‹printed in the book. Nothing reallyโ€‹ I sayโ€‹, aside for one small surprise.








































In the beginning of the little piece written about Yabia Omer we read-

ย โ€‹ืจื’ื™ืœื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉื”ืชื•ืจื” ื”ืœื›ื” ื•ื ืชื“ืœื“ืœื” ืžื”ืขื“ื” ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช, ื™ืจื“ ืงืจื ื” ื•ืคื ื” ื–ื™ื•ื” ื”ื•ื“ื” ื•ื”ื“ืจื”. ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื. ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืคื ื™ื ืœื ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืžื™ื“ื” ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื
โ€‹
These โ€‹last sevenโ€‹ wordsโ€‹-
โ€‹
ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืคื ื™ื ืœื ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืžื™ื“ื” ืฉื—ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื

may seem offensive to the level of Sephardic scholarship at that time and were therefore censored out ofโ€‹ โ€‹ Yabia Omer volume one. Interestingly they were printed in Yabia Omer volume two. This is consistent in the numerous later editions of the books as well, including the latest re-typset edition (5775-2015).

We now learn that Artscroll's "The Festivals in Halacha" was โ€‹โ€‹not the โ€‹only, nor the โ€‹earliest case of R. Zevin censorship (see here).โ€‹

It should be mentioned that in R. Ovadia Yosef's first volume of responsa Teshuvot Hazon Ovadia, he receives a nice close to page long approbation by R. โ€‹Zevin, but still not the full review essay I was hoping for.






































โ€‹[โ€‹โ€‹โ€‹โ€‹1โ€‹]โ€‹ I thank Eliezer Brodt for finding me the full three volume set. This set doesn't turn up in used bookstores too oftenโ€‹โ€‹. It's an exception from most of R. Zevin's other books that have been reprinted many times over.โ€‹ I remember the special morning I received his email informing me that he found them like yesterday.โ€‹
โ€‹[โ€‹2โ€‹]โ€‹ โ€‹R. Zevin's โ€‹Ishim ve-Shitotโ€‹ includes ten long essays on more famous Torah personalities โ€‹โ€‹,โ€‹ and โ€‹his โ€‹three volumes of Sofrim u-Sefarimโ€‹ includes about a hundred and seventy-five (!) short essaysโ€‹.
โ€‹โ€‹[โ€‹3โ€‹]โ€‹ I had previously spoken to one grandson Eliyahu who's an attorney living in Tel Aviv about having Sofrim u-Sefarim added to Hebrewbooks.org. In the course of our conversations Eliyahu mentioned that he heard Hebrewbooks.org had already scanned and posted some of R. Zevins's other books, andย that was done without permission. He asked me to send them a message that the family will take legal action if the issue isn't straightened out. Uponย Hebrewbooks hearing thatโ€‹,โ€‹ they seemed uninterested in dealing with the family to obtain permission to keep the books on their siteโ€‹,โ€‹ and all of R.ย Zevin's books were instantly removed. Also included in the books removed was the essay whose true author is still in question about Yeshiva boys servingย in the Israeli Army. See my comment hereย and see this post here.
[4] That came to me a little bit as a surprise because in the three volumes worth of essays that R. Zevin chose to publish in his Sofrim u-Sefarim, we do find some highly critical reviews. See for example in volume one (Geonim, Rishonim, u-Teshuvot)โ€‹โ€‹ his review on the third volume of Teshuvot Yaskil Avdi by R. Ovadia Hedaya (pg. 258), and in volume two (Pesakim, Pirushim, ve-Hidushim), a highly critical review of R. Aryeh Pomoranchik's first volume of Torat Zera'im (pg. 221)โ€‹.โ€‹โ€‹ Also in this same volume a pretty serious charge leveled (delicately) โ€‹at his friend and colleague R. Yehezkel Abramsky's Hazon Yehezkel Hullin (pg. 114). However, upon looking through some old issues of Ha-Tzofeh from the 1930's and 40's (where most of the material in Sofrim u-Sefarim first appeared, โ€‹see โ€‹hereโ€‹โ€‹)โ€‹,โ€‹ I was able to come across some of theย  extremely critical reviews that R. Zevin chose not to publish in his books. None of the reviews that R. Zevin published in his books were nearly as critical as these.

Seeย Ha-Tzofeh Fri. Aug 5th 1938






































andย Ha-Tzofeh Fri. Sep. 27th 1940


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Nachmanides Introduced the Notion that Targum Onkelos Contains Derash

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Nachmanides Introduced the Notion that Targum Onkelos Contains Derash

By Israel Drazin



People today read Targum Onkelos and search it for derash, halakhah, and homiletical teachings. The following will show that the rabbis in the Talmuds and Midrashim and the Bible commentators who used the Targum before the thirteenth century recognized that the Aramaic translation only contains the Torahโ€™s peshat, its plain meaning, and not sermonic material. It will survey how the pre-thirteenth century rabbis and scholars used Onkelos and how Nachmanides changed the way the Targum was understood. It was only after this Nachmanides change that other interpreters of Onkelos read derash into this Targum. The article also introduces the reader to Onkelos and explains why the Talmudic rabbis required that it be read and why many Jews failed to observe this rabbinic requirement.

The Law
The Babylonian Talmud and the later Jewish codes mandate that Jews read the Torah portion weekly, twice in the original Hebrew and once in Targum Onkelos.[1]Moses Maimonides and Josef Karo, whose law codes are regarded in many circles as binding, felt that it is vital to understand the Bible text through the eyes of its rabbinically accepted translation Targum Onkelos, and many authorities agree that no other translation will do.[2]This raises some questions.

What is Targum Onkelos?
The word Targummeans โ€œtranslation,โ€ thus TargumOnkelos means a translation by Onkelos. Targum Onkelos is a translation of the five books of Moses, from the Hebrew into Aramaic. The rabbis placed their imprimatur upon Targum Onkelos[3]and considered it the official translation. Although there are other Aramaic translations[4]and ancient Greek ones,[5]and latter translations into other languages, Targum Onkelos is the most literal. Yet despite being extremely literal, it contains over 10,000 differences from the original Hebrew text.[6]

The Significance of Onkelos
Onkelos was extolled by all the Bible commentaries. Rashi states that the Onkelostranslation was revealed at Mt. Sinai.[7]Tosaphot[8]made a similar statement and contends that there are places in the Torah that simply cannot be understood without the Onkelos translation.

Some people consider these comments as hyperbolic or metaphoric - that the authors meant that Onkelos is so significant that it is as if it were a divine gift handed to Moses at Sinai. But whether literal or metaphoric, it is clear that these sages are expressing a reverence for Onkelos not accorded to any other book in Jewish history, a reverence approaching the respect they gave to the Torah itself. This veneration continued and is reflected in the fact that for many centuries every printed edition of the Pentateuch contained an Onkelostext that was generally given the preferential placement adjacent to the Torah.

Why did the rabbis require Jews to read Targum Onkelos?
It is significant that the Talmudic dictum was written when there were many important exegetical rabbinical collections, the Talmuds, Genesis Rabbah, Mekhilta,Sifra, and Sifrei, among others. Remarkably, the rabbis did not require Jews to read these books, filled with interesting derash, explanations written by the rabbis themselves. They only mandated the reading of Onkelos when reviewing the weekly Torah portion.

Furthermore, by the time the Shulchan Arukh was composed in the sixteenth century and the Talmudic law was stated in it, most of the classical medieval biblical commentaries, which included derash, were already in circulation. While Joseph Karo, its author, suggests that one could study Rashi on a weekly basis in place of the Targum, he quickly adds that those who have โ€œreverence for Godโ€ will study both Rashi and Onkelos. The explanation offered by TAZ, a commentary on the Shulchan Arukh, is that while Rashi enables the student to read the Bible and gain access to Talmudic and Oral Law insights, Onkelosis still indispensable for understanding the text itself.

Thus, the rabbis, who composed books containing midrashic interpretations, felt that it was so important for Jews to know the plain meaning of the Torah that they mandated that Jews read Targum Onkelos every week.[9] When did people stop seeing that Onkelos contains the Torahโ€™s plain meaning and read derash into the wording of the Targum?

The Earliest Understanding of Targum Onkelos
There was no problem understanding the intent of TargumOnkelos until the thirteenth century, close to a millennium after it was composed. At that time, Nachmanides was the first commentator to introduce the concept that people should read Onkelos to find deeper meaning, meaning that went beyond the plain sense of the text. These included mystical lessons, what Nachmanides called derekh haemet, the true way.

The conclusion that Onkelos contains only the simple meaning of the Torah is supported by an examination of how the ancients, living before the thirteenth century, consistently and without exception, used Onkelos only for its peshat. Although many of these Bible commentators were interested in and devoted to the derash that could be derived from biblical verses, and although they were constantly using Onkelos for its peshat, they never employed the Targum to find derash or to support their conclusion that the verse they were discussing contained derash.This situation changed when for the first time Nachmanides mined the Targum to uncover derash.[10]Nachmanides used Onkelos to support his interpretation of the Torah.

This is significant since many of these rabbinical commentators were far more interested in derash than in peshat. If they felt that Onkelos contained derash, they would have used this translation, which they extolled, as Nachmanides later did, to support their midrashic interpretations of the Torah. The following are the ancient sources.

Midrashim and Talmuds
The first references to a Targum are in the Midrashim and the Babylonian Talmud. A Targum is mentioned 17 times in the Midrashim[11]and 18 times in the Babylonian Talmud.[12]Each of the 35 quotes is an attempt to search the Targum for the meaning of a word. Although these sources were inclined to midrashic explanations, they never tried to draw midrashic interpretations from the Targum. Thus, the Midrashim and the Babylonian Talmud understood that the Targum is a translation and not a source for derash.

Die Masorah Zum Targum Onkelos
A volume of targumic traditions collected in Die Masorah Zum Targum Onkelos is said to have been composed in the third century but was most likely written a couple of centuries later,[13]after the Talmuds. It also has no suggestion that Onkelos contains derash. The book attempts to describe the Targum completely, but contains only translational traditions about Onkelos. If the author(s) believed that Onkelos has derash,he/they would have included traditions about it.

Saadiah Gaon
The works of Saadiah Gaon, born in 882 C.E., also contain no indication that Onkelos hasderash. Saadiah composed a translation of the Bible into Arabic and used Targum Onkelos extensively to discover the plain meaning of words. He never even hinted that his predecessorโ€™s work contains derash.[14]This is significant since Saadiah emphasized the Torahโ€™s plain meaningand used Onkelos frequently in his Arabic translation.[15]He quotes Onkelos on every page without attribution. His uses Onkelos as a translation so extensively that if readers have difficulty understanding Onkelos, they can look at the Saadiah translation and be able to see what the targumist is saying.

Menachem ibn Saruq
Menachem ibn Saruq, a tenth century Spanish lexicographer, was explicit on the subject. He called Onkelos a ptr, a translation.[16]

Samuel ben Hofni Gaon
Samuel Ben Hofni Gaon headed the Babylonian Academy at Sura in Babylonia during the years 997-1013 and wrote a biblical commentary. He refers to Targum Onkelos on several occasions,[17]uses the Targum to understand the meaning of words, and always treats it as a literal translation without derash.

Rashi
No biblical commentator relied more on Onkelos than Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki, better known as Rashi, born in 1040. He extols Onkelos, as stated above, mentions the targumist by name hundreds of times,[18]and incorporates the targumic interpretation without attribution in hundreds of other comments. He has a non-rigid blend of peshat and derash in his commentary,[19] and frequently quotes the Talmuds and Midrashim as the origin of his derash. He never uses Onkelos as a source for his derash or treats the Targumother than as a translation. It should be obvious that since Rashi relied on Onkelos, whom he considered holy, for peshat, if he saw derash in the Targum he would have said so.

Rashbam
Rashiโ€™s grandson Samuel ben Meir (also known as Rashbam, about 1085 โ€“ 1174) wrote his Bible commentary in large measure to liberate people from derash and to show his disagreement with Rashiโ€™s frequent use of derash.[20]He seldom mentions his sources, but draws from Onkelos with respect, usually by name. In Genesis, for example, where Rashi is only named in 37:2, Onkelos is quoted in 21:16, 25:28, 26:26, 28:2, 40:11, and 41:45. In Deuteronomy, to cite another example, Onkelos is mentioned in 4:28, 16:2, 16:9, 17:18, and 23:13. While he criticizes his grandfather with and without attribution for his use of derash,[21]and occasionally disagrees with Onkelos, he never rebukes the targumist for using derash.[22]Like his predecessors, he saw no derash in Targum Onkelos.

Abraham ibn Ezra
Abraham ibn Ezra (1089 -1164), like Rashbam, was determined to distance himself from derash and establish the literal meaning of the biblical text in his Bible commentaries, as he states in his two introductions. He uses Onkelos frequently as a translation, and only as a translation, to prove the meaning of words.

Ibn Ezra was the first to note some few isolated instances of derash in the Targum. This first observation of derash in Onkelos,I believe, is because derashdid not exist in the original Targum text.[23]Various over-zealous well-meaning scribes embedded it at a later period, probably around the time that Ibn Ezra discovered it. Ibn Ezra recognizes that Onkelosโ€™ purpose is to offer peshat because he states that the targumist is following his (ibn Ezraโ€™s) own method, the โ€œstraight (or right) wayโ€ of peshatto interpret the Hebrew according to grammatical rules.[24]

Maimonides
Shortly thereafter, Maimonides, born in 1138, supported part of his rationalistic philosophy by using Onkelos. Maimonides recognized that the targumist deviated frequently from a literal rendering of the biblical text to remove anthropomorphism and anthropopathisms to avoid portraying God in a human fashion, for this is โ€œa fundamental element in our faith, and the comprehension of which is not easy for the common people.โ€[25]Maimonides never uses Onkelos for derash.ย 

Joseph Bechor Schor
Joseph Bechor Schor (born around 1140) adopted the literal methodology of Rashbam.[26]ย However, he is not as consistent as Rashbam. He inserts homiletical comments along with those that are literal. He mentions Rashbam only twice by name but quotesย Onkelosย dozens of times to support his own definition of a word when his interpretation is literal. Although he usedย Onkelosย andย derash, he never states or even suggests thatย Onkelosย containsย derashย [27]ย and never usesย Onkelosย to support his homiletical remarks.

Radak
David Kimchi (known as Radak, about 1160 โ€“ 1235) wrote biblical commentaries using the textโ€™s plain sense in contrast to the homiletical elaborations that were prevalent during his lifetime. He followed the methodology of ibn Ezra and stressed philological analysis. He refers to Onkelos frequently and always treats the Targum as a translation. He, like ibn Ezra, occasionally inserted homiletical interpretations into his commentary from midrashic legends to add zest and delight readers, but he never used Onkelosfor this purpose.

Conclusion from Reading the Ancient Commentators

The consistent history of all the commentators using Onkelos only for the plain meaning of the Torah and never mentioning seeing derash in the Targum is quite persuasive that no derash was inthe original Onkelos text. If any of the commentators who lived before the mid-thirteenth century believed that Targum Onkelos contained derash, especially those who delighted in or who were concerned with derash, they would have said so. None but ibn Ezra did, and he called attention to only a very small number of probably recent unauthorized insertions.

Where, then, did the derashthat many people today think that they see in Targum Onkelos come from? First of all, I am convinced that most of the targumic readings that individuals read as derash were really intended by the targumist as peshat, the textโ€™s simple meaning; people differ is what they see. Second, Ch. Heller has shown us many examples where most, if not all, of the presently found derashdid not exist in the original Targum text.[28]His findings are supported by the previously mentioned history showing that ibn Ezra was the first to observe any derash at all in our Targum.

Nachmanides was the first Bible commentator to read derash into Onkelos
Nachmanides was influenced by kabala, Jewish mysticism. He equated kabala with truth[29]and felt[30] that since Torah is truth, it must contain kabala. He stated that no one can attain knowledge of the Torah, or truth, by his own reasoning. A person must listen to a kabalist who received the truth from another kabalist, generation after generation, back to Moses who heard the kabalistic teaching from God.[31]He decided to disseminate this truth, or at least hint of its existence, and was the first to introduce mystic teachings of the Torah into a biblical commentary.[32]

He extended his exegetical methodology into his interpretations of our Targum.[33]He felt this was appropriate. Onkelos, he erroneously believed, โ€œlived in the age of the philosophers immediately after Aristotle,โ€ and like the philosopher was so interested in esoteric teachings that, though born a high placed Roman non-Jew, he converted to Judaism to learn Torah and later teach its secret lessons through his biblical translation.[34]

Examples of Nachmanidesโ€™ problematical interpretations of Onkelos
In a detailed separate study, which is still in draft, I studied all the instances where Nachmanides interprets Onkelos. I found that Nachmanides mentions Targum Onkelos in his Commentary to the Pentateuch while analyzing 230 verses. Most of his attemptsto see the targumist teaching homiletical lessons and mysticism seem forced. He reads more into the Aramaic than the words themselves state.
There are 129 puzzling interpretations of Onkelos in these 230 verses. This represents about 56 percent of the total 230. However, 55 of the 230 Nachmanidean comments are only references to the Targum without any analysis. When these 55 comments are subtracted from the total of 230, we are left with 175 times that Nachmanides analyzes the Targum. The 129 problematical interpretations represent about 75 percent of the 175 times that the sage discusses Onkelos and uses it to support his interpretation of the biblical verse. The following are seven examples.

1. Genesis 1:31 states: โ€œAnd God saw everything that He made, and, behold, it was very good (Torah: tov meod - Onkelos: takin lachada).โ€

This verse describes the results of the sixth day of creation as โ€œvery good.โ€ The Onkelos translator, who prefers to clarify ambiguous biblical phrases with more specificity (good is which way), renders it โ€œwell established,โ€ implying that the world was established firmly. He may have recalled Psalms 93:1, โ€œthe world also is established that it can not be movedโ€ and Psalms 96:10, โ€œthe world also shall be established that it shall not be moved.โ€

Nachmanides reads into the Onkelos words โ€œwell establishedโ€ than the targumist is teaching that creation contains evil, โ€œthe order (of the world) was very properly arranged that evil is needed to preserve what is good.โ€[35]This interpretation is a good homily, but is not the plain meaning of the verse. It is problematical because โ€œwell establishedโ€ does not suggest โ€œcontaining evil,โ€ nor does it imply that evil is necessary to preserve what is good.

2. After creating man, God, according to Genesis 2:7, โ€œbreathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living being.โ€ The bible uses nefesh for โ€œbreathโ€ and โ€œbeing.โ€ In later Hebrew, nefesh came to mean โ€œsoul,โ€ a meaning it did not have in the Pentateuch. Since the Hebrew โ€œbreath of lifeโ€ does not indicate how humans excel other creations, Onkelos alters the text and clarifies that โ€œman acquired the power of speech,โ€ ruach memalela(literally, โ€œspeaking breathโ€). Thus humans transcend animals by their intelligence in general and their ability to speak, communicate, and reason in particular. This is the Aristotelian concept, accepted by Moses Maimonides (1138-1204), that the essence of a human is intelligence and people have a duty to develop that intelligence.[36]

Nachmanides, the mystic, disagreed with Maimonides, the rationalist, and interprets the biblical nefeshanachronistically as โ€œsoul.โ€ The Hebrew verse, he declares, alludes to the superiority of the soul that is composed of three forces: growth, movement, and rationality.[37]Onkelos, he maintains, is reflecting this concept of the tri-partite soul and that the rational soul that God breathed into manโ€™s nostrils became a speaking soul. How the two Aramaic words, literally meaning โ€œspeaking breath,โ€ suggests this elaborate tri-partite theology is problematical. Again, Nachmanides seemingly desired to have Onkelos, which he admired, reflect his own idea even though what he reads into the Targum is not its plain meaning.

3. Genesis 4:1 states that when Eve gave birth to Cain, she exclaimed, โ€œI have acquired a man with the Lord.โ€ Since this statement has an anthropomorphic sound, suggesting physical help from God, our Targum adds qadam, โ€œbefore (the Lord),โ€ thereby supplanting, or at least softening this implication of physical aid by distancing God from the birth.

The term qadamwas inserted in Onkelos in verse 4, and in seventy other instances in Genesisfor the same reason as well as 585 additional times in the other volumes of Targum Onkelos to the Pentateuch.[38]Nachmanides ignores the targumistโ€™s frequent use of qadam to avoid anthropomorphism[39] and its plain meaning. He states that the correct interpretation of the biblical Hebrew is that Eve said: โ€œThis son will be an acquisition from God for me, for when we die he will exist in our place to worship his creator.โ€ Nachmanides assures us that this is Onkelosโ€™ opinion as proven by the addition of the word qadam. Thus, Nachmanides drew a conclusion from the Targumโ€™s single word, a word that is used over five hundred times for an entirely different purpose and which cannot, by itself, connote and support his interpretation. Furthermore, qadam does not have this meaning in the hundreds of other instances where it appears.

4. In Genesis 17:17, Onkeloschanges a significant detail in the Aramaic translation. Abraham does not โ€œlaughโ€ (Hebrew, vayitzchak) when he hears he will have a child in his old age, but โ€œrejoicesโ€ (Aramaic, vachadi). This alteration is not made in 18:12 where Sarah โ€œlaughedโ€ when she heard the same news. Rashi explains that the couple reacted differently. Abraham trusted God and rejoiced at the good news, while Sarah lacked trust and sneered; therefore God chastised her in 18:13.

Nachmanides states that Onkelosโ€™ rendering in 17:17 is correct because the word tzachakalso means โ€œrejoice,โ€ and Abraham and Sarahโ€™s reactions, he contends, were the same, proper โ€œrejoicing.โ€

Actually, as defined by ibn Shoshan and others, tzachak is an outward expression, a โ€œlaugh,โ€ and not an inner feeling of contentment. Bachya ben Asher mentions the Aramaic rendering, but he does not mention Nachmanides. He recognizes, contrary to Nachmanides, that tzachak does not mean โ€œrejoice,โ€ but โ€œlaugh.โ€ He states that the targumist made the change to โ€œrejoicesโ€ because in the context in which the word appears here it should be understood as an expression of joy. This example, while not expressing a theology, as in the first three instances, also shows Nachmanides insisting by a forced interpretation that the targumist is understanding the Torah as he does.

5. Onkelos replaces the Torahโ€™s โ€œIs anything too wondrous for the Lord,โ€ in Genesis18:14, with โ€œIs anything hidden from before the Lord.โ€ The Hebrew โ€œwondrousโ€ is somewhat vague and is seemingly not exactly on point with the tale of Sarahโ€™s laughter. The Aramaic explains the text and relates that Sarahโ€™s laughter, mentioned in the prior verse, although it was not done openly, was not โ€œhiddenโ€ from God. This is also the interpretation of Saadiah, Rashi, Chazkunee, ibn Ezra, Radak, etc. Thus, in short, all that the targumist is doing is clarifying the text, a task he performs over a thousand times in his translation.

However, Nachmanides states that Onkelos uses โ€œhiddenโ€ in the translation to teach a mystical lesson. Nachmanides, as generally happens, does not explain the lesson, but the explanation is in Bachya ben Asher and Recanati. Bachya writes that God added the letter hay to Abramโ€™s name, turning it into Abraham, and โ€œthe letter hay alludes to Godโ€™s transcendental powersโ€; thus God gave Abraham the power to have a son. Abraham, he continues, exemplified the divine attribute of mercy and Isaac the divine attribute of justice, and now both attributes would exist on earth. It is difficult if not impossible to read this Nachmanidean mystical interpretation of Onkelos into the word โ€œhidden.โ€[40]

6. Genesis21:7 quotes Sarahโ€™s excited exclamation of joy:[41]โ€œWho (meaning which person) would have said to Abrahamโ€ that I would give birth at the advanced age of ninety. The Targum renders her statement as a thankful praise of God:ย  โ€œFaithful is He who said to Abraham,โ€ and avoids the risk of the general population reading the translation and misunderstanding Sarahโ€™s reaction as one of surprise, for she should not have been surprised. God had assured Abraham that he would have a son a year previously.[42]Thus, by making the change, the Targum shows that she is not only not surprised, but is thankful that God fulfilled His prior promise.

Nachmanides interprets the Torahโ€™s โ€œWho would have said to Abrahamโ€ to mean that everyone will join Abraham and Sarah and rejoice with them over Isaacโ€™s birth because it is such a โ€œsurpriseโ€; the possibility of the birth would never have occurred to anyone. He writes that Onkelosโ€™ rendition is โ€œcloseโ€ to his interpretation of a community celebration. Actually as we stated, Onkelosโ€™ โ€œFaithful is He who said to Abrahamโ€ is quite the opposite. Rather than focusing on the people and the unexpected event, the targumist deviated from the Hebrew text to avoid depicting Sarah being surprised. His Aramaic version concentrates on God, not the community, and how the divine promise was fulfilled.
7. Genesis22:2 recounts God commanding Abraham to take his son Isaac to โ€œthe land of Moriahโ€ and offer him there as a sacrifice. Mount Moriah was traditionally understood to be the later place of the Jerusalem Temple[43]and the targumist therefore renders โ€œMount Moriahโ€ as โ€œthe land of worshipโ€ to help identify the area for his readers. This is a typical targumic methodology; the Targum changes the name of places mentioned in the Bible and gives its later known name.[44]

Nachmanides contends that Onkelos is referring to a midrashic teaching that was recorded years after the targumistโ€™s death in Pirkei dโ€™R. Eliezer:[45]God pointed to the site and told Abraham that this is the place where Adam, Cain, Abel, and Noah sacrificed, and the site was named Moriah because Moriah is derived from the word mora, โ€œfear,โ€ for the people feared God there and worshipped Him.
There are several problems with Nachmanidesโ€™ analysis. First, as we already pointed out, our targumist frequently updates the name of a site to help his readers identify its location[46]and this is a reasonable consistent explanation of the targumic rendering. Second, the words โ€œland of worshipโ€ do not suggest the elaborate midrashic story that is not recorded until long after the death of the targumist. Third, the story is a legend; there is nothing in any text to indicate that God had such a conversation with Abraham or that the ancestors sacrificed in this area; and it is contrary to the targumistโ€™s style to incorporate legends into his translation.

Summary
Thus, if the Bible commentators before Nachmanides saw derash in Onkeloswe would have expected them to say so, but none did until Abraham ibn Ezra and he was probably referring either to recent scribal additions to the original Targumor he was expressing his opinion that his view of peshat on certain verses differed with those of the targumist. Nachmanides was the first to read derash and mysticism into the Targum just as he was the first to read mysticism into theTorah itself. We offered some examples that show the difficulties of his methodology.

Nachmanidesโ€™ introduction of the notion that Onkelos contains mysticism may be the reason why rabbis,[47]who respected Nachmanidesโ€™ teachings, began for the first time to search the Targum for derash.

Dr. Israel Drazin is the author of thirty-three books, including twelve on Targum Onkelos. His website is www.booksnthoughts.com. This article appeared previously on www.oqimta.org.il.




[1] Babylonian Talmud, Berakhot 8a, b, Maimonidesโ€™ Mishneh Torah, Laws of Prayer 13:25, and Shulchan Arukh, OrachChayim, The Laws of Shabbat 285, 1. The requirement is not in the Jerusalem Talmud because Targum Onkelos did not exist when this Talmud was composed. See I. Drazin, Journal of Jewish Studies, volume 50, 1999, pages 246-258, where I date Onkelos to the late fourth century, based on the targumistโ€™s consistent use of late fourth century Midrashim.
[2] Although some authorities, such as the Shulchan Arukh, discussed below, say that a person can fulfill the rabbinic obligation by reading Rashi.
[3] Babylonian Talmud, Megillah 3a.
[4] The two other complete Jewish Aramaic translations are Targum Pseudo-Jonathan and Targum Neophyti.
[5] The Septuagint, composed about 250 BCE, and the translation by Aquila, composed about 130 CE.
[6] There are many reasons for the targumic changes, such as to clarify passages, to protect Godโ€™s honor, to show respect for Israelite ancestors, etc. These alterations were not made to teach derash, as will be shown below. The differences between peshat and derash is a complex subject. Simply stated, peshat is the plain or simple or obvious meaning of a text. Derash is the reading of a passage with either a conscious or unconscious intent to derive something from it, usually a teaching or ruling applicable to the needs or sensibilities of the later day, something the original writer may have never meant.
[7] S.v, mโ€™charef, Babylonian Talmud,ย  Kiddushin 49a.
[8] S.v. shnayim, Babylonian Talmud, Berakhot8a, b.
[9] They may have also been implying that one cannot understand their derash unless they first understood the Torahโ€™s peshat.
[10] Our view that Onkelos was written without derash is also supported by the following interpretation of the Babylonian Talmud, Megillah 3a. The Talmud recalls a tradition that the world shuttered when Targum Jonathan to the Prophetswas written. Why, the Talmud asks, did this not occur when Targum Onkelos was composed? Because, it answers, Onkelos reveals nothing (that is, it contains no derash), whereas Targum Jonathan reveals secrets (by means of its derash).
[11] See M. M. Kasher, Torah Shelemah 24 (Jerusalem, 1974), pages 225-238, and J. Reifman, Sedeh Aram (Berlin, 1875), pages 12-14. The mention of a Targum in the Midrashim and Talmuds are not necessarily references to Onkelos; the wording in these sources and Onkelos frequently differ.
[12] See Kasher, supra pages 155-161 and Reifman, supra, pages 8-10.
[13] See edition by A. Berliner (Leipzig, 1877). See I. Drazin, JJS 50.2, supra, and note 15, for a summary of the scholarly comments on this volume.
[14] See my study of Saadiah Gaon and Onkelos in the introduction to Onkelos on the Torah: Leviticus, pages xvii-xxii.
[15]Perushei Rav Saadiah Gaon, in Torat Chaim, Mossad Harav Kook, Jerusalem, 1986, and Daf-Chen Press, Jerusalem, 1984. The uses of Onkelos are indexed in Genesis in the 1984 volume on page 471. See E. I. J. Rosenthal, โ€œthe Study of the Bible in medieval Judaism,โ€ Studia Semitica, Cambridge, 1971, pages 244-271, especially pages 248 and 249 regarding Saadiah.
ย ย ย  Saadiah established Hebrew philology as a prerequisite for the study of the literal sense of the Bible and he used rabbinic interpretations in his translation only when it complied with reason. He stated at the end of his introduction to the Pentateuch that his work is a โ€œsimple, explanatory translation of the text of the Torah, written with the knowledge of reason and tradition.โ€ He, along with ibn Ezra andOnkelos, as we will see, included another meaning only when the literal sense of the biblical text ran counter to reason or tradition. His failure to mention that Onkelos contains derash does not prove indisputably that he saw no derash in the commentary. However, since he copied Onkelosโ€™ interpretations so very frequently in his Arabic translation, it is likely that if he saw derash in Onkelos he would have mentioned it.
[16] In his Sefer Machberet Menahem (H. Filipowski, editor), London and Edinburgh, 1854, pages 14a, 16b 17a, 17b, 20a, and others.
[17]Peirush Hatorah Lโ€™Rav Shmuel ben Hofni Gaon, Mossad Harav Kook, Jerusalem, 1978, index on page 111.
[18] See the listing in Perushei Rashi al Hatorahby Charles B. Chavel, Mossad Harav Kook, Jerusalem, 1982, pages 628 and 629. For Rashiโ€™s struggle against derash, see, for example, his commentary to Genesis 3:8. While Rashi believed he interpreted Scriptures according to its peshat, ibn Ezra criticized him: โ€œHe expounded the Torah homiletically believing such to be the literal meaning, whereas his books do not contain it except once in a thousand (times),โ€ Safah Berurah, editor G. Lippmann, Furth, 1839, page 5a. See also S. Kamin, Rashiโ€™s Exegetical Categorization with Respect to the Distinction Between Peshat and Derash(Doctorial Theses), Jerusalem, 1978; M. Banitt, Rashi, Interpreter of the Biblical Letter, Tel Aviv University, 1985; and Y. Rachman, Igeret Rashi, Mizrachi, 1991.
[19] Rashi said that he was offering peshat. He meant that his commentary frequently contains derash that seemed to him to reflect the plain meaning of the Torah.
[20] M. I. Lockshin, Rabbi Samuel ben Meirโ€™s Commentary on Genesis, Jewish Studies, The Edwin Mellen Press, 1989. See especially Rashbam to Genesis 37:2 and 49:16 where he criticizes his grandfather with strong language.
[21] Lockshin, supra, pages 391-399, notes that Rashiโ€™s Torah Commentary is the primary focus of Rashbamโ€™s own commentary. Of some 650 periscopes of interpretation in the latterโ€™s commentary to Genesis, only about 33 percent concern issues not relevant to Rashi. Of the remaining two-thirds, in only about 18 percent does Rashbam feel Rashi is correct, and in just over 48 percent he is in disagreement with him, consistently criticizing him for substituting derash for peshat, exactly what Rashi declared he would not do. With this sensitivity to and opposition to derash, it is very telling that he did not sprinkle even one drop of his venom on the targumist.
[22] See Genesis 25:28, for example, where Rashbam issues the accolade: โ€œthe plain meaning of scripture is the one offered by the Targum.โ€ It is significant to note that although Rashbam railed against the insertion of derash into a biblical commentary, his own commentary was frequently adulterated, as was Targum Onkelos, by the improper insertions of derash by later hands. See, for example, Deuteronomy2:20, 3:23, 7:11, and 11:10 in A. I. Bromberg, Perush HaTorah leRashbam, Tel Aviv, 5725, page 201, note 25; page 202, note 111; page 206, 7, note 9; and page 210, note 3.
[23] Ch. Hellerโ€™s and D. Revelโ€™s were also convinced that the original text of Onkelos did not have derash. However, they did not recognize that Nachmanides was the first commentator to argue the opposite. The first is in A Critical Essay on the Palestinian Targum to the Pentateuch, NY, 1921, pages 32-57. The second is in Targum Yonatan al Hatorah, New York, 5685, page 5. See also Bernard Grossfeld in โ€œTargum Onkelos, Halakhah and the Halakhic Midrashim,โ€ in D.R.G. Beattie and M. McNamara (editors), The Aramaic Bible , 1994,ย  pages 228-46.
[24] In his epigram preceding one of the recessions of his commentary on the Pentateuch, ibn Ezra writes that he intends to mention by name only those authors โ€œwhose opinion I consider correct.โ€ He names Onkelosfrequently. In his commentary to Numbers, for example, the Targum is cited in 11:5 where he gives another interpretation, but respectfully adds, โ€œhe is also correct,โ€ and in 11:22 he comments, โ€œit means exactly what the Aramaic targumist states.โ€ See also 12:1; 21:14; 22:24; 23:3; 23:10; 24:23 and 25:4. Asher Weiser, Ibn Ezra, Perushei Hatorah, Mossad Harav Kook, 1977.
ย ย ย  While he treats Onkelos respectfully, ibn Ezra uses the strongly derogatory terms โ€œdeceiversโ€ or โ€œliars,โ€ for the derash-filled Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Deuteronomy24:6. See D. Revel, Targum Yonatan al Hatorah, New York, 5685, pages 1 and 2.ย ย ย 
[25] The โ€œfundamental elementโ€ that Onkelosaddresses is the avoidance of a literal translation of most anthropomorphic and anthropopathic phrases. See the listing in Moses Maimonides, The Guide of the Perplexed, translated and with an introduction by Shlomo Pines, The University of Chicago Press, 1963, volume 2, pages 656 and 658, and 1:28 for the quote.
ย ย ย  Maimonides based his interpretation of negative commands 128 and 163 in part upon our Targum. Maimonides, The Commandments, translated by Charles B. Chavel, The Soncino Press, 1967, pages 116, 117 and 155, 156. This was not because Onkelosdeviated from the plain meaning to teach halakhah. Command 128 forbids an apostate Israelite to eat the Passover offering. Onkelos translates the biblical โ€œno alien may eat thereofโ€ as โ€œno apostate Israeliteโ€ (Exodus12:43). The targumist may have thought this was the necessary meaning because Exodus12:45 and 48 state that a sojourner and an uncircumcised Israelite could not eat this sacrifice; thus the earlier verse must be referring to someone else. Command 163 prohibits a priest from entering the Sanctuary with disheveled, untrimmed hair.ย  Maimonides notes thatOnkelos translates Leviticus10:6โ€™s โ€œLet not the hair of your heads go looseโ€ as โ€œgrow long.โ€ Again, the targumist may have thought that this was the verseโ€™s simple sense because it is the language used by the Torah itself in Numbers 6:5 and because when one loosens oneโ€™s hair it becomes longer. Indeed, Rashi states explicitly that the peshat of โ€œlooseโ€ in this instance is โ€œlong.โ€
[26] He is believed to have been a student of Rashbamโ€™s brother Rabbeinu Tam. See the source in the next note.
[27] J. Nebo, Perushei Rabbi Josef Bechor Schor al Hatorah, Mossad Harav Kook, 1994, page 11, Schor went beyond Targum Onkelos in his concern about biblical anthropomorphisms and his attempts to whitewash the patriarchs.
[28] See note 23.
[29]Genesis 6:13, 18; 31:42; 33:20; 35:13; and others.
[30] This could be seen as a kind of syllogism. Torah is truth. Kabala is truth. Thus, Torah โ€œmustโ€ contain Kabala.
[31]Ramban, Writings and Discourses, translated and annotated by Charles B. Chavel, Shilo, 1978, page 174.
[32]Ramban, Commentary on the Torah, translated and annotated by Charles B. Chavel, Shilo Publishing House, Inc., 1971, volume 1, XII. Chavel points out that the extensive kabalistic influences on future generations can be traced to Nachmanides.
[33] This is my original idea. It is based on several facts. First, we know that he was the first to read Kabala in the Torah words and phrases. Second, we know that he had enormous respect for Onkelos; he referred to Onkelos about 230 times in his Bible commentary; although he criticized others, he treated Onkelos with great respect, even reverence.He considered Onkelos to be generally expressing the truth. Thus it is reasonable to assume that he applied the same syllogism to Onkelos that he applied to the Torah. Finally, we know of no one before him who read mysticism into the targumistโ€™s words.
[34]Ramban, Writings and Discourses, supra, pages 75-76. Nachmanidesโ€™ error in dating Targum Onkelos โ€œimmediately after Aristotleโ€ was not his only historical mistake. He believed that the Talmudโ€™s implied dating of Jesus at about 100 years before the Common Era was correct. See Judaism on Trial, editor H. Maccoby, Associated University Presses, Inc., 1982, pages 28 and 29.ย ย ย ย ย ย ย 
[35] The Midrash GenesisRabbah 9:5, which is the source of this teaching, mentions โ€œdeathโ€ and 9:9 โ€œthe evil inclination in manโ€ as examples of seemingly bad things, which are good from a non-personal world-wide perspective. Bachya ben Asher, the student of Nachmanidesโ€™ student Rashba, who was also a mystic, mentions 9:9, but not the Targum. He did not see this idea in Onkelos.
[36]Guide of the Perplexed 1:1. The Greek term psychehad a similar developmental history as the Hebrew nefesh. T. Cahill, Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea, Doubleday, 2003, writes on page 231.
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Psychewas, to begin with, a Greek word for โ€œlife,โ€ in the sense of individual human life, and occurs in Homer in such phrases as โ€œto risk oneโ€™s lifeโ€ and โ€œto save oneโ€™s life.โ€ Homer also uses it of the ghosts of the underworld โ€“ the weak, almost-not-there shades of those who once were men. In the works of the early scientist-philosophers, psyche can refer to the ultimate substance, the source of life and consciousness, the spirit of the universe. By the fifth century B.C., psyche had come to mean the โ€œconscious self,โ€ the โ€œpersonality,โ€ even the โ€œemotional self,โ€ and thence it quickly takes on, especially in Plato, the meaning of โ€œimmortal selfโ€ โ€“ the soul, in contrast to the body.
[37] Bachya ben Asher also mentions the parts of the soul, but not the Targum, again not seeing Nachmanidesโ€™ idea in Onkelos.
[38] See the five books by I. Drazin on Targum Onkelospublished by Ktav Publishing House. Each contains a listing of the deviations by the targumist from the Hebrew original.
[39] In my discussion of Genesis 46:4, I show that Nachmanides was convinced that Onkelos never deviates to avoid anthropomorphisms.
[40] Bachya mentions neither Nachmanides nor Onkelos, again not seeing the Nachmanidean interpretation in the Targum.
[41] The โ€œjoyโ€ is mentioned in the Targum to verse 6.
[42]Genesis 17:19.
[43] See II Chronicles 3:1.
[44] Rashi gives an additional reason why โ€œMount Moriahโ€ is rendered โ€œthe land of worship.โ€ He connected โ€œMoriahโ€ to โ€œmyrrh,โ€ which was an ingredient of the sacrificial incense and an important part of the Temple worship. Rashi states that this is the targumic interpretation. Rashi may be explaining why the site was called Moriah, which would not be derash, but the plain sense of the word. Nachmanides interpretation goes far beyond a simple definition. See Genesis Rabbah 55:7, Exodus 30:23ff, and Babylonian Talmud, Keritut 6a.
[45] Chapter 31.
[46] This occurs twenty-three times in Genesisalone.
[47] There are many books that explain the derash that they see in Onkelos. The most widely known is Netina Lager by Nathan Adler (Wilna, 1886). Others include Biure Onkelos by S. B. Schefftel (Munich, 1888), and Chalifot Semalotย  and Lechem Vesimla by B. Z. J. Berkowitz (Wilna, 1874 and 1843).ย  Modern writers using this method include Y. Maori, who generally focuses on the Peshitta Targum, Rafael Posen who writes a weekly column for a magazine distributed in Israeli synagogues. One can find listings in B. Grossfeldโ€™s three volumes A Bibliography of Targum Literature, HUC Press, 1972.
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Rambamโ€™s Response to the Inclusion of Chicken, Duck and Quail in Qaraite Cuisine

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Rambamโ€™s Response to the Inclusion of Chicken, Duck and Quail in Qaraite Cuisine
By Tzvi H. Adams


In โ€œWaiting Six Hours for Dairy- A Rabbanite Response to Qaraismโ€ (here) I posited that Rabbeinu Chananel initiated the practice of waiting six hours between meat and dairy in order to protect Rabbanite values. This association was inspired by Dr. Bernard Revelโ€™s studies ofย  Rabbanite leadersโ€™ efforts to counter sectarian influences during the early Middle Ages[1], as well as a shiur by Rabbi David Bar-Hayim. I then suggested that Rambam furthered this anti-Qaraite motion by including poultryinto the required six hour waiting category. Rambamโ€™s poultry innovation was intended to protect Rabbanites from influence of their Qaraite neighbors who cooked meat and poultry with dairy. Briefly, this latter suggestion was based upon two observations:

a) The simple reading of the Talmud Chullin 104b -ืขื•ืฃื•ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”ื ืื›ืœื™ืŸื‘ืืคื™ืงื•ืจืŸ -ื‘ืœืื ื˜ื™ืœืชื™ื“ื™ืื•ื‘ืœืืงื™ื ื•ื—ื”ืคื”- as interpreted by the Gaonim and rishonim for five centuries until Rambam, allowed poultry and dairy to be consumed consecutively without even kinuach ve'hadacha in between. Unless we imagine that Rambam possessed a secret hitherto unheard-of tradition which understood the Talmud's words in some other fashion, we can assume that Rambam actually changed the Talmudic halacha in his Yad. Being the strong proponent of Rabbanite halacha and tradition that he was, Rambam surely had a compelling reason to make this drastic alteration.

b) There are many instances of anti-Qaraite creativity in Rambam's writings and rulings. Examples include:

ยงย  Rambam was the first rishon to disqualify a get (divorce document) written in a Qaraite court by a Qaraite scribe[2].

ยงย  Though the Gaonim and R. Chananel explicitly say that not eating on the three minor fast days is the individualโ€™s choice (as per the Talmudโ€™s ruling RH 18b- ืื™ืŸ ืฉืžื“ ื•ืื™ืŸ ืฉืœื•ื โ€“ ืจืฆื• - ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ, ืจืฆื• - ืื™ืŸ ืžืชืขื ื™ืŸ), Rambam chose to overlook this detail about fast days in his halachic writings. The purpose of this intentional omission was almost certainly to separate Rabbanites from the Qaraite community who did not observe the Rabbanite fasting calendar[3].

ยงย  Most rishonim recognized the rabbinic origins of the Yom Kippur afflictions other than not eating or drinking. Rambam, however, led readers to believe that all five afflictions are biblically proscribed. It seems that Rambam presented the Yom Kippur restrictions in this way only to protect the halacha from the Qaraite perspective[4].ย 

Other examples were cited in my previous article. It is therefore reasonable to say that the required waiting period between poultry and dairy, found first in Yad HaChazaka, is one more instance of Rambamโ€™s anti-Qaraitic halachic reformation.

An analysis of the historical development of Qaraite rules of kosher birds strongly supports my suggestion[5]. Qaraite halacha did not rely on the Rabbanite Oral Law. Therefore, the kosher signs of the Mishna Hullin 59a โ€“

ย ื•ืกื™ืžื ื™ ื”ืขื•ืฃ ืœื ื ืืžืจื• ืื‘ืœ ืืžืจื• ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื›ืœ ืขื•ืฃ ื”ื“ื•ืจืก ื˜ืžื ื›ืœ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื• ืืฆื‘ืข ื™ืชื™ืจื” ื•ื–ืคืง ื•ืงื•ืจืงื‘ื ื• ื ืงืœืฃ ื˜ื”ื•ืจ ืจ'ืืœืขื–ืจ ื‘ืจ'ืฆื“ื•ืง ืื•ืžืจ ื›ืœ ืขื•ืฃ ื”ื—ื•ืœืง ืืช ืจื’ืœื™ื• ื˜ืžื
and the statement of the Talmud Hullin 63b, ืขื•ืฃ ื˜ื”ื•ืจ ื ืื›ืœ ื‘ืžืกื•ืจืช, were of little significance to Qaraites. That chicken, duck, quail and other fowl were eaten in Rabbanite tradition[vi] was unreliable evidence for these strict Scriptualists. Because the identity of most birds mentioned in the Torah was ambiguous, Qaraites had no reliable means of recognizing birds as kosher other than the pigeon and turtledove; they were confident that the correct translation of ืชื•ืจ and ื™ื•ื ื” had been preserved. The devout Qaraite, therefore, could not partake of chicken, quail, or duck. Over time, some Qaraites communities became lenient and found legal rationale to permit these commonly eaten birds. Slowly over the 12thDescription: https://ssl.gstatic.com/ui/v1/icons/mail/images/cleardot.gifand 13thcenturies a lenient policy was adopted by the broad Qaraite community. Because from the inception of Qaraism its scholars read the passuk, "ืœื ืชื‘ืฉืœ ื’ื“ื™ ื‘ื—ืœื‘ ืืžื•" literally[7], they had no hesitations against eating and cooking the newly accepted fowl and dairy together.ย 

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The Rabbanite and Qaraite communities were very much interconnected politically and socially[8]; the divide between the parties was often blurred[9]. Rabbanite leaders sought to protect the integrity of their tradition from sectarian influence. I demonstrated previously how R. Chananel (990 -1053) and his disciple, R. Yitchak Al-fasi[10](
1013 - 1103), created a six hour waiting requirement between meat and dairy in the early eleventh century - thereby limiting the social participation of Rabbanites with Qaraites. During the years of the legislating activity of these sages it was not common practice amongst Qaraites to eat chicken, duck, and quail, birds on the daily North African Rabbanite menu[11]. R. Chananel and R. Al-fasi, therefore, did not see a need for demanding a wait after poultry as there was little concern that Rabbanites and Qaraites would be dining together over such fowl. Furthermore, it was difficult to reread the obvious permitting statement of the Talmud, ืขื•ืฃื•ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”ื ืื›ืœื™ืŸื‘ืืคื™ืงื•ืจืŸ. During the century between these sages and the rise of Rambam (1135-1204) to prominence, Qaraites widely allowed themselves to eat the same fowl consumed by the Rabbanite community. Now a Qaraite-Rabbanite poultry dinner was possible and influence from the cooking practices of โ€œthe eaters of milk with meatโ€ (the nickname for Qaraites) was real. Rambam, seeking to protect Rabbanite tradition from Qaraite values by building social barriers, creatively placed fowl alongside meat in the requirement to wait six hours before dairy:

ืžึดื™ ืฉืึถืึธื›ึทืœ ื‘ึผึธืฉื‚ึธืจ ื‘ึผึทืชึผึฐื—ึดืœึผึธื”, ื‘ึผึตื™ืŸ ื‘ึผึฐืฉื‚ึทืจ ื‘ึผึฐื”ึตืžึธื” ื‘ึผึตื™ืŸ ื‘ึผึฐืฉื‚ึทืจ ืขื•ึนืฃ--ืœึนื ื™ึนืื›ึทืœ ืึทื—ึฒืจึธื™ื• ื—ึธืœึธื‘ ืขึทื“ ืฉืึถื™ึผึดืฉืึฐื”ึถื” ื‘ึผึตื™ื ึตื™ื”ึถืŸ ื›ึผึฐื“ึตื™ ืฉืึตืขื•ึผืจ ืกึฐืขื•ึนื“ึธื” ืึทื—ึถืจึถืช, ื•ึฐื”ื•ึผื ื›ึผึฐืžื•ึน ืฉืึตืฉื ืฉืึธืขื•ึนืช: ย ืžึดืคึผึฐื ึตื™ ื”ึทื‘ึผึธืฉื‚ึธืจ ืฉืึถืœึผึฐื‘ึตื™ืŸ ื”ึทืฉึผืึดื ึผึทื™ึดื, ืฉืึฐืึตื™ื ื•ึผ ืกึธืจ ื‘ึผึฐืงึดื ึผื•ึผื—ึท
(ืจืžื‘"ื ืžืฉื ื” ืชื•ืจื” ืžืื›ืœื•ืช ืืกื•ืจื•ืช ืคืจืง ื˜'ื”ืœื›ื” ื›ื–)

This addition did not go unnoticed. In the two generations following Rambam, the greatest rishonim criticized the Rambamโ€™s reform as it reversed the ruling of the Bavli. Ramban (1194-1270) was the first to challenge Rambamโ€™s alteration:


... ืื‘ืœ ื”ืจืžื‘"ืŸ ื–"ืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื“ืื’ืจื ืืคื™ืœื• ืขื•ืฃ ื•ืื—ืจ ื›ืš ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ืฉืจื ื“ืœื™ืฉื ื ื”ื›ื™ ืžืฉืžืข ื“ืงืืžืจ ืขื•ืฃ ื•ื’ื‘ื™ื ื”...(ืจ"ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืจื™"ืฃ ื—ื•ืœื™ืŸ ื“ืฃ ืœื–')

R. Aaron Halevi (1230-1300) also challenged Rambamโ€™s ruling:

...ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ื”ื›ื™ ืฉืจื™ื ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืฃ ื‘ืœื ื ื˜ื™ืœืช ื™ื“ื™ื ืžืฉื•ื ื“ืงื™ืœ ื“ืœื ืžื™ืชืกืจ ืืœื ืžื“ืจื‘ื ืŸ, ื•ื“ืื™ ืœื ืฉื ื™ ืœืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื•ืฃ ื•ืื—ืจ ื›ืš ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ื•ืื—ืจ ื›ืš ืขื•ืฃ... ื”ื•ื ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืœืงื ื•ื— ื”ืคื” ื“ืœื ื‘ืขื™ื ืŸ ืืคื™'ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื•ืฃ ืœื’ื‘ื™ื ื”.... ื•ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืงืฆืช ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจื‘ื™'ื–"ืœ (=ื”ืจืžื‘"ื) ืฉืคืจืฉื• ื“ื”ื”ื™ื ื“ืื’ืจื ื“ืืžืจ ืขื•ืฃ ื•ื’ื‘ื ื” ื ืื›ืœื™ืŸ ื‘ืืคื™ืงื•ืจืŸ ื“ื•ืงื ื’ื‘ื™ื ื” ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื•ืื—ืจ ื›ืš ืขื•ืฃ... (ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ ืจื"ื” ืœื—ื•ืœื™ืŸ ื“ืฃ ืงื“')

However, within a century of the publication of Mishna Torah, creative ways of reinterpreting the words of ืื’ืจื were created to fit this new reform into the Talmud[12]. Tur (1275-1340) YD 89 cites Rambamโ€™s ruling on poultry as if none other exists.

Professor Daniel Frank has thoroughly examined the historical development of the laws of kosher birds in Qaraite halacha in his monograph, โ€œMay Karaites Eat Chicken? Indeterminacy in Sectarian Halakhic Exegesisโ€[13]. My chiddush is that the inclusion of chicken, duck, and quail in Qaraite cuisine in the 12th century provoked Rambamโ€™s tightening of the poultry and dairy separation laws. Unless noted otherwise, the following sources and translations are summarized from Frankโ€™s article:

Views of Early Qaraite Scholars
Anan ben David
In his Book of Commandments[14], the early learned schismatic,Anan ben David
(c. 715 - c. 795) writes the following:
Now we do not find any birds were used for burnt offerings save turtledoves and pigeons, as it is writtenโ€ฆ (in lev. 1:14). The juxtaposition of the words โ€˜of every clean birdโ€™ and โ€˜he offered burnt offeringsโ€™ thus proves that the only clean birds are turtledoves and pigeons.

Benjamin Nahawandi
One of the greatest of the Qaraite scholars of the early ninth century, Benjamin Nahawandi, states:
The only clean birds that can be eaten are the pigeon and its kind. There are many clean and unclean varietiesโ€ฆ but they cannot be identified by means of physical criteria, since Scripture does not make these explicit. โ€ฆ The pigeon is (the bird) that makes the cooing noise in is throat, as it is stated: We coo like doves (Is. 59:11)โ€ฆ. Therefore the only clean bird that is mentioned is the pigeon and its kind[15].

The identification of other clean birds remains uncertain because the Torah provides no physical description of the birds. Pigeons (and their turtledove subspecies) are an exception because the Scriptural verse, We coo like doves (Is. 59:11), gives a physical sign to identify the bird.ย ย 

Daniel al-Qumisi
Daniel al-Qumisi (d. in Jerusalem 946),
founder of the Qaraite "Mourners of Zion" movement, likewise insisted that because Biblical Hebrew is no longer the vernacular, the meaning of most of the birds of the Torah has been forgotten; โ€œfor God-fearing people, the only permitted birds are turtledoves, pigeons and wild pigeons- at least until the coming of the Righteousnessโ€[16]. He attacks the Rabbanites for having invented physical criteria for identifying kosher birds- as Scripture does not supply these.

Jacob Al-Qirqisani
The early tenth century Qaraite dogmatist and exegete, Jacob Al-Qirqisani writes similarly in his Kitabal-Anwar (written in 937):
Should someone say, โ€œThe people already knew these signs via oral tradition from the prophetโ€ฆโ€ He may be answered: โ€œAs for your statement that the people used to know these signs via oral tradition from the prophet- this is (but) a claim. You have no proof of thisโ€ฆ.โ€[17]

Japeth ben Ali
The
maskil ha-Golah and foremost Qariate Bible commentator, Japeth ben Ali (10th century, born in Iraq and died in Jerusalem), emphasized that pigeons and turtledoves are the only unquestionably permitted birds; all other species should be avoided.
Of all the birds, those which are demonstrably permitted are turtledove and pigeonโ€ฆ. As for chicken, mountain quail, partridge, duck, goose, crane, sparrow, and others- we must suspend judgement concerning them all- โ€œuntil he comes and teaches righteousnessโ€ (Hos.10:12)[18]

Rabbanite Rishonim

The rishonim were very familiar with Qaraite claims.

R. Saadya Gaon
In response to Qaraite scholars, R. Saadya Gaon (882-942) addresses the topic of the identification of the birds of the Torah in his writings[19], delivering anti-sectarian polemics.

Targum Psuedo-Yonathan[20]
Dr. Bernard Revel proved in his "ืชืจื’ื•ื ื™ื•ื ืชืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืจื”" (here) that the Targum Yonathan (ben Uziel) was really an early ninth century targum commissioned by the Torah sages of Eretz Yisroel. He demonstrated that this targum is filled with views of the Talmud Yerushalmi as well as interpretations aimed at countering sectarian movements. (here)

ื•ื™ืช ืืœื™ืŸ ืžื™ื ื™ื™ื ืชืฉืงืฆื•ืŸ ืžืŸ ืขื•ืคื ื“ืœื™ืช ืœื”ื•ืŸ ืฆื™ื‘ืขื ื™ืชื™ืจื ื•ื“ืœื™ืช ืœื™ื” ื–ืคืงืชื ื•ื“ืงื•ืจืงื‘ื ื™ื” ืœื™ืชื•ื”ื™ ืžืงืœื™ืฃ ืœื ื™ืชืื›ืœื•ืŸ (ืชืจื’ื•ื ื™ื•ื ืชืŸ ื•ื™ืงืจื ื™ื:ื™ื’)

The Targumโ€™s author included the physical criteria for kosher birds to imply that these signs are contained within the Torah itself and valid- unlike the views of early Qaraites who disregarded these signs only known by rabbinic tradition.
Mah-Yedidut[21]

The popular Friday night zemer, Mah-Yedidut, by Menachem (possibly ben Saruq[22], 920-980 Spain), highlights the differences between the Rabbanite and Qaraite Sabbath. Menachem emphasizes the obligations of kavod ย veโ€™oneg Shabbos (
ืœึฐื‘ื•ึผืฉื ื‘ึดึผื’ึฐื“ึตื™ ื—ึฒืžื•ึผื“ื•ึนืชand ืขึนึฝื ึถื’ ืงึฐืจึธื ืœึทืฉึทึผืื‘ึธึผืช[23], ื•ึฐื”ึทืฉึตึผืื ึธื” ืžึฐืฉึปืื‘ึทึผึฝื—ึทืช) and kindling Sabbath lights ([24]ืœึฐื”ึทื“ึฐืœึดื™ืง ื ึตืจ ื‘ึดึผื‘ึฐืจึธื›ึธื”), the permissibility of thinking of post-Sabbath work ([25]ื”ึดืจึฐื”ื•ึผืจึดื™ื ืžึปืชึธึผืจึดื™ื) and gives an allusion to marital relations ย ย ย ย ย ย ย (ื›ึทึผืฉึผืื•ึนืฉึทืื ึดึผื™ื ืกื•ึผื’ึธื”[26], ื‘ึผื•ึน ื™ึธื ึฝื•ึผื—ื•ึผ ื‘ึตึผืŸ ื•ึผื‘ึทืชื•ึฐืœึธื ึฝื•ึผื—ึท ื‘ึฐึผื—ึดื‘ึทึผืช) โ€“ all points of contention between Qaraites and Rabbanites.

ืžึทื” ื™ึฐึผื“ึดื™ื“ื•ึผืช ืžึฐื ื•ึผื—ึธืชึตืšึฐ, ืึทืชึฐึผ ืฉึทืื‘ึธึผืช ื”ึทืžึทึผืœึฐื›ึธึผื”,ย 
ื‘ึฐึผื›ึตืŸ ื ึธืจื•ึผืฅ ืœึดืงึฐืจึธืืชึตืšึฐ, ื‘ึผึฝื•ึนืึดื™ ื›ึทืœึธึผื” ื ึฐืกื•ึผื›ึธื”,ย 
ืœึฐื‘ื•ึผืฉื ื‘ึดึผื’ึฐื“ึตื™ ื—ึฒืžื•ึผื“ื•ึนืช, ืœึฐื”ึทื“ึฐืœึดื™ืง ื ึตืจ ื‘ึดึผื‘ึฐืจึธื›ึธื”,ย 
ื•ึทืชึตึผึฝื›ึถืœ ื›ึธึผืœ ื”ึธืขึฒื‘ื•ึนื“ื•ึนืช, ืœึนื ืชึทืขึฒืฉื‚ื•ึผ ืžึฐืœึธืื›ึธื”.ย 
ืœึฐื”ึดืชึฐืขึทื ึตึผื’ ื‘ึฐึผืชึทืขึฒื ื•ึผื’ึดื™ื ื‘ึทึผืจึฐื‘ึผื•ึผืจึดื™ื ื•ึผืฉึฐื‚ืœึธื•ื•ึฐื“ึธื’ึดื™ื.ย 

ืžึตืขึถึฝืจึถื‘ ืžึทื–ึฐืžึดื™ื ึดื™ื, ื›ึธึผืœ ืžึดื™ื ึตื™ ืžึทื˜ึฐืขึทืžึดึผื™ื,ย 
ืžึดื‘ึฐึผืขื•ึนื“ ื™ื•ึนื ืžื•ึผื›ึธื ึดื™ื, ืชึทึผืจึฐื ึฐื’ื•ึนืœึดื™ื ืžึฐืคึปื˜ึธึผืžึดื™ื,ย 
ื•ึฐืœึทืขึฒืจึนืšึฐ ื›ึทึผืžึธึผื” ืžึดื™ื ึดื™ื, ืฉึฐืืชื•ึนืช ื™ึตื™ื ื•ึนืช ืžึฐื‘ึปืฉึธึผื‚ืžึดื™ื,ย 
ื•ึฐืชึทืคึฐื ื•ึผืงึตื™ ืžึทืขึฒื“ึทื ึดึผื™ื, ื‘ึฐึผื›ึธืœ ืฉึธืืœึนืฉื ืคึฐึผืขึธืžึดื™ื.ย 
ืœึฐื”ึดืชึฐืขึทื ึตึผื’ ื‘ึฐึผืชึทืขึฒื ื•ึผื’ึดื™ื ื‘ึทึผืจึฐื‘ึผื•ึผืจึดื™ื ื•ึผืฉึฐื‚ืœึธื•ื•ึฐื“ึธื’ึดื™ื. ย 

ื—ึฒืคึธืฆึถึฝื™ืšึธ ื‘ึผื•ึน ืึฒืกื•ึผืจึดื™ื, ื•ึฐื’ึทื ืœึทื—ึฒืฉึนืื‘ ื—ึถืฉึฐืื‘ึผื•ึนื ื•ึนืช,ย 
ื”ึดืจึฐื”ื•ึผืจึดื™ื ืžึปืชึธึผืจึดื™ื, ื•ึผืœึฐืฉึทืื“ึตึผืšึฐ ื”ึทื‘ึธึผื ื•ึนืช,ย 
ื•ึฐืชึดื™ื ื•ึนืง ืœึฐืœึทืžึฐึผื“ื•ึน ืกึตึฝืคึถืจ, ืœึทืžึฐื ึทืฆึตึผึฝื—ึท ื‘ึดึผื ึฐื’ึดื™ื ื•ึนืช,ย 
ื•ึฐืœึทื”ึฒื’ื•ึนืช ื‘ึฐึผืึดืžึฐืจึตื™ ืฉึถึฝืืคึถืจ, ื‘ึฐึผื›ึธืœ ืคึดึผื ึผื•ึนืช ื•ึผืžึทื—ึฒื ื•ึนืช.ย 
ืœึฐื”ึดืชึฐืขึทื ึตึผื’ ื‘ึฐึผืชึทืขึฒื ื•ึผื’ึดื™ื ื‘ึทึผืจึฐื‘ึผื•ึผืจึดื™ื ื•ึผืฉึฐื‚ืœึธื•ื•ึฐื“ึธื’ึดื™ื.ย 

ื”ึดืœึผื•ึผื›ึธืšึฐ ืชึฐึผื”ึตื ื‘ึฐื ึทึฝื—ึทืช, ืขึนึฝื ึถื’ ืงึฐืจึธื ืœึทืฉึทึผืื‘ึธึผืช,ย 
ื•ึฐื”ึทืฉึตึผืื ึธื” ืžึฐืฉึปืื‘ึทึผึฝื—ึทืช, ื›ึฐึผื“ึธืช ื ึถึฝืคึถืฉื ืžึฐืฉึดืื™ื‘ึทืช,ย 
ื‘ึฐึผื›ึตืŸ ื ึทืคึฐืฉึดืื™ ืœึฐืšึธ ืขึธืจึฐื’ึธื”, ื•ึฐืœึธื ึฝื•ึผื—ึท ื‘ึฐึผื—ึดื‘ึทึผืช,ย 
ื›ึทึผืฉึผืื•ึนืฉึทืื ึดึผื™ื ืกื•ึผื’ึธื”, ื‘ึผื•ึน ื™ึธื ึฝื•ึผื—ื•ึผ ื‘ึตึผืŸ ื•ึผื‘ึทืช.ย 
ืœึฐื”ึดืชึฐืขึทื ึตึผื’ ื‘ึฐึผืชึทืขึฒื ื•ึผื’ึดื™ื ื‘ึทึผืจึฐื‘ึผื•ึผืจึดื™ื ื•ึผืฉึฐื‚ืœึธื•ื•ึฐื“ึธื’ึดื™ื.


The poet sings of Rabbanite dishes: stuffed chicken (ืชึทึผืจึฐื ึฐื’ื•ึนืœึดื™ื ืžึฐืคึปื˜ึธึผืžึดื™ื), duck or goose (ื‘ึทึผืจึฐื‘ึผื•ึผืจึดื™ื), and quail (ืฉึฐื‚ืœึธื•)[27]โ€“ poultry one would not find at Qaraite meals. By mentioning these items Rabbanite tradition is strengthened and cherished.

Byzantiumย 

Constantinople was a thriving center of Qaraism during much of the Middle Ages. The
Byzantine Rabbanite, Tobiah ben Eliezer (late 11thโ€“ early 12thcenturies), often attacks Qaraite ideas[28]in his Medrash Lekach Tov (written in 1097 and revised it in 1107 or 1108). In Vayikra[29], Tobiah emphasizes that โ€œgeneration after generationโ€ birds eaten by the Byzantine Rabbanites have been permitted: ื•ืขื•ืฃ ื˜ื”ื•ืจ ื ืื›ืœ ื‘ืžืกื•ืจืช ื“ื•ืจ ืื—ืจ ื“ื•ืจ ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืื•ื•ื– ื•ืื•ื•ื– ื‘ืจ ื•ืชืจื ื’ื•ืœืช. This indicates that in his lifetime Byzantine Qaraites refrained from eating the chicken, goose, and duck.

However, only half a century later, the Byzantine Qaraite scholar,
Judah Hadassi, tells that many of his landsmen allowed themselves to partake of these fowl. In his Eshkol ha-Kofer (1148), Hadassi notes this transition in Qaraite law with disapproval:

Now some of the (Karaite) teachers approved those domestic fowl, which are customarily raised in their home. (They did so) because this was the choice of the entire nation, not because there are any scriptural allusions that justify or confirm (this practice). Happy is he who guards himself wholeheartedly against uncertainties so that he is stringent in all (matters pertaining) to ritual slaughter! For knowledge of the Holy Tongue has disappeared from our midst, and we no longer know the names of (the birds) so as to recognize which is permitted and which is forbidden to us. Therefore we will remain silent until (Elijah) comes and teaches us righteousness. But if we rely upon custom (minhag) and tradition, does this tradition not take away from and add to our Torah, even contradicting it in part?

Eventually, the lenient approach to the kosher status of chicken and duck became the norm and the Qaraite Nicomedian theologian, Aaron ben Elijah (1328-1369), states definitely in his Gan Eden (1354):

Since knowledge of our language has now become deficient during our exile, we do not know the clean species. All that remains in fact, is knowledge of several of the names (mentioned) in Scripture and those known via the tradition (sevel ha-yerushah[30]), such as pigeon, turtledove, quail, partridge, swan, chicken, and goose. For it has been transmitted, one person from the next, that these are raised domestically and that they are permittedโ€ฆ[31]

Spain

These transformations in Qaraite halacha were taking place in the Byzantine Empire during Rambamโ€™s lifetime though geographically removed from him. The Rambam did correspond with students and scholars from France to Syria and even had knowledge of a Jewish community in India. We also see in Rambam much anti-Qaraite activity. It can be assumed that Rambam had his finger on the pulse of nuances in Qaraites halachic and cultural development. However, Rambam may have had an even more intimate knowledge of these developments. There is evidence that the Qaraite fowl โ€˜kosherificationโ€™ process was taking place in Rambamโ€™s very own mother country, Spain, while Rambam was yet a young man:

R. Yehuda Halevi (1075 โ€“ 1141) writes in his Kuzari (completed around 1140):
ื•ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ื›ื™ ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื• ืœื™ ื”ืงืจืื™ื ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืžืกืคืงืช ืขืœ ื–ื”... ื•ืขื•ื“ ืจื•ืฆื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื›ื™ ื™ื‘ืืจื• ืœื™ ืžื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืฃ ื”ืžื•ืชืจ ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืฃ ื”ืืกื•ืจ (ื–ื•ืœืช ื”ืขื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืžืคืจืกืžื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื” ื•ืชื•ืจ) ื•ืžื ื™ืŸ ืœื”ื ื›ื™ ื”ืชืจื ื’ืœืช ื•ื”ืื•ื– ื•ื”ื‘ืจื•ื– ื•ื”ืชื›ื™ ืื™ื ื ืžืŸ ื”ืขื•ืคื•ืช ื”ื˜ืžืื™ื (ื›ื•ื–ืจื™ ื’:ืœื”)

ย I wish the Qaraites would give me a satisfactory answer to questions of this kindโ€ฆ I desire an explanation of the lawful and unlawful birds, excepting the common ones, such as the pigeon and turtledove. How do they know that the hen, goose, duck, and partridge are not unclean birds?โ€ (Kuzari 3:35)

This passage indicates that by the 1130s, (note- Rambam was born in 1135), Qaraites in Spain permitted the consumption of the same fowl eaten by the Rabbanites[32].

Rambam lived at the end of the Qaraite Golden Age. He observed many Rabbanites leave the fold for Qaraism and a weakened respect for the Oral Torah in the Rabbanite community[33]. Witnessing Qaraites begin to consume many birds eaten by the Rabbanite community, Rambam feared that his followers would be influenced by Qaraite meat/poultry and milk cooking practices. He tightened baasar beโ€™cholovlaws - a process begun a century earlier by R. Chananel - by requiring a six hour wait for poultry as well.

Many people ask, โ€œIf the political anti-Qaraite origins of the six hour wait are correct, why was this fact not expressed by rishonim and medieval writers?โ€ In โ€œWaiting Six Hours for Dairy- A Rabbanite Response to Qaraismโ€, I cited the opinion of R. Tam and others that R. Chananelโ€™s six hour ruling was instituted merely because ื‘ืงืขืืžืฆืื•ื•ื’ื“ืจื•ื‘ื”ื’ื“ืจ. There was indeed some awareness of social-political causation. However, the anti-Qaraite purpose of Rambamโ€™s poultry-wait innovation went unnoted. Rambam had discreetly inserted fowl alongside genuine meat in his Mishna Torah. Many later authorities may have assumed that Rambam, the scion of an illustrious rabbinical family, possessed an alternative method of interpreting the Talmud. The reason why R. Chananel, R. Al-fasi, and Rambam did not disclose the reasons for their halachic reforms is readily understood in light of the following passage:

...ื“ืืžืจ ืขื•ืœื ื›ื™ ื’ื–ืจื™ ื’ื–ื™ืจืชื ื‘ืžืขืจื‘ื ืœื ืžื’ืœื• ื˜ืขืžื ืขื“ ืชืจื™ืกืจ ื™ืจื—ื™ ืฉืชื ื“ืœืžื ืื™ื›ื ืื™ื ื™ืฉ ื“ืœื ืก"ืœ ื•ืืชื™ ืœื–ืœื–ื•ืœื™ ื‘ื” (ืข"ื– ืœื” ืข"ื)

In Eretz Yisroel when a decree was issued its purpose was not revealed for twelve months. This is because many people would not accept the meaning, and consequently would show a negative attitude toward the decree.ย (Avodah Zara 35a)

The general Rabbanite populace may not have adhered to the new strict laws if they realized they were merely enacted for social-political reasons. ย 

HaRav David Bar-Hayim of Machon Shilo has already noted in his โ€œMeat and Milkโ€ series (here) that Rambam was the first to require any waiting between poultry and dairy. He therefore opines that one may eat poultry and then dairy without even kinuach veโ€™hadacha as clear from the Talmud, Gaonim, and early Baalei Tosfos[34].ย 

For more interesting articles visit www.UncensoredJudaism.com

I would like to thank Pe'er Barzilai for reading and commenting on this essay. His insights greatly improved its quality.




[1]A Torah luminary of the last century, Dr. Bernard Revel, devoted many studies to the relationship between rabbinic authorities and Qaraism. In his"ืคืจืงื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ืœื•ืคื™ ื”ืžื ื”ื’ื™ื"ย (here)
and "ืชืจื’ื•ื ื™ื•ื ืชืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืจื”"(here), Dr. Revel revealedย how muchย of the rabbinic writings of the early Middle Ageswere aimed at separating the Rabbanite community from sectarian influence.
Dr. Revel wrote his 1911 doctoral dissertation on the origins of Qaraite halacha- "The Karaite Halakhah and Its Relation to Sadducean, Samaritan, and Philonian Halakhah"(here). Here is a sample from Dr. Revelโ€™s article: The Gaonim (see Beit Yosef O.C. 24) opposed holding and gazing at the tzitit during the recital of the Shema only because this was Qaraite practice in accordance with the literal understanding of ื•ืจืื™ืชื ืื•ืชื•. (here)
[2]Responsa 2:628-29 http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=1731&st=&pgnum=351
See Rustow, Heresy and the Politics of Community: the Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate (2008), pg. 345.
[3] This topic deserves a comprehensive discussion. For a preview see โ€œR. Yitchak Al-fasiโ€™s Anti-Qaraite Legislative Activityโ€ here Case #3.
[4] Rambam writes:

ย ื•ื›ืŸ ืœืžื“ื• ืžืคื™ ื”ืฉืžื•ืขื”, ืฉืืกื•ืจ ืœืจื—ื•ืฅ ื‘ื• ืื• ืœืกื•ืš ืื• ืœื ืขื•ืœ ืืช ื”ืกื ื“ืœ ืื• ืœื‘ืขื•ืœ.ย  ื•ืžืฆื•ื” ืœืฉื‘ื•ืช ืžื›ืœ ืืœื•, ื›ื“ืจืš ืฉืฉื•ื‘ืช ืžืื›ื™ืœื” ื•ืฉืชื™ื™ื”:ย  ืฉื ืืžืจ "ืฉื‘ืช ืฉื‘ืชื•ืŸ"
ืฉื‘ืช ืœืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืœืื›ื”, ื•ืฉื‘ืชื•ืŸ ืœืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืืœื•.ย  ื•ืื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืจืช ืื• ืงืจื‘ืŸ, ืืœื ืขืœ ืื›ื™ืœื” ื•ืฉืชื™ื™ื” ื‘ืœื‘ื“; ืื‘ืœ ืื ืจื—ืฅ ืื• ืกืš ืื• ื ืขืœ ืื• ื‘ืขืœ, ืžื›ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืžื›ืช ืžืจื“ื•ืช.

Later authorities were perplexed by Rambamโ€™sย view and much ink was spilled trying to resolve it. See Beit Yosef O.C. 611 and acharonim there.

Often
Rambam precedes modern academic research by eight and a half centuries. It is unlikely that he was unaware of the late origins of the Yom Kippur laws. See Dr. Israel Drazinโ€™s article โ€œYom Kippur is Not a Biblical Holidayโ€ (here). Rambam may have lead readers to believe all five afflictions were biblical only to counter Qaraite views.ย 

A century ago, Bernard Revel made an identical argument about Targum
Pseudo-Yonathan (here). The early ninth century Targum on Lev. 15:29 mentions all five afflictions as being implicit from the Torah itself. Revel concluded that the Targum had but one purpose - to oppose the Qaraites and strengthen belief in the Oral Torah.ย 

For a thorough analysis of what Rambam meant when he wrote
ืœืžื“ื• ืžืคื™ ื”ืฉืžื•ืขื”, see Albert D. Friedbergโ€™s โ€œAn Evaluation of Maimonidesโ€™ Enumeration of the 613 Commandments, With Special Emphasis on the Positive Commandmentsโ€ pgs. 275- 281 here (-also in his recent 2014 Crafting the Commandments).ย 

Another anti-Qaraism in Mishna Torah may be in Hilchot Chamets u-Matzah where Rambam describes how chametz is forbidden from midday of the fourteenth of Nisan:

ืžืฆื•ืช ืขืฉื” ืžืŸ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืœื”ืฉื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ืžืฅ ืงื•ื“ื ื–ืžืŸ ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืื›ื™ืœืชื•
ืฉื ืืžืจ "ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ืชืฉื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืื•ืจ ืžื‘ืชื™ื›ื" (ืฉืžื•ืช ื™ื‘,ื˜ื•)
ืžืคื™ ื”ืฉืžื•ืขื” ืœืžื“ื• ืฉืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื–ื”, ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ื ืืจื‘ืขื” ืขืฉืจ.ย  ื•ืจืื™ื” ืœื“ื‘ืจ ื–ื”
ืžื” ืฉื›ืชื•ื‘ ื‘ืชื•ืจื” "ืœื ืชืฉื—ื˜ ืขืœ ื—ืžืฅ, ื“ื ื–ื‘ื—ื™" (ืฉืžื•ืช ืœื“,ื›ื”)
ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ืœื ืชืฉื—ื•ื˜ ื”ืคืกื— ื•ื”ื—ืžืฅ ืงื™ื™ื; ื•ืฉื—ื™ื˜ืช ื”ืคืกื—, ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ื ืืจื‘ืขื” ืขืฉืจ ืื—ืจ ื—ืฆื•ืช

(ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ื—ืžืฅ ื•ืžืฆื” ืคืจืง ื‘:ื)

Friedberg (pg. 282, note 53) suggests that Rambam adds the emphasis of โ€œfrom Scriptureโ€ โ€“ โ€œืžืŸ ื”ืชื•ืจื”โ€ - only to polemicize with his Qaraite adversaries who held that chametz could be kept until the beginning of the first day of the festival.

Another interesting point Friedberg makes (pgs. 298-302) is that a very careful reading of Maimonides shows that he regarded tefillin and mezuza as practices which began with the lay population and were later sanctioned by the rabbis, or possibly originated by the rabbis, but were certainly not biblical. In the his conclusion to Crafting the Commandments, Friedberg explains why Rambam was so careful to conceal his view:ย ย ย ย ย 

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  I conjectured further that Maimonides deliberately withheld the scriptural designation from certain commandments that had been labeled as scriptural in the ShM (=Sefer HaMitzvoth) when the plain reading of the scriptural text did not appear to provide sufficient evidence for them, even when rabbinic interpretation suggested otherwise. To this end, he chose an artful but somewhat concealed literary device to designate them as such, the participle of correct practice. This is the case with such prominent practices as the recitation of the Shema, the binding of the tefillin, the writing and placing of the mezuzah and the study of Torah.

In the heavily politicized atmosphere of Cairo, where Rabbanites were both assiduously courted and continuously attacked by sectarian groups (largely Karaites) over the role of the oral law in interpreting Scripture, Maimonides chose to keep his radical opinions hidden yet recoverable. When applied to the legal sections of the Torah, Maimonidesโ€™ peshateh di-qera hermeneutics would likely raise hackles among his own co-religionists and, worse yet, give comfort to the deniers of the oral law. His carefully planted literary cues could lead the reader who is familiar with rabbinic terminology and unburdened by popular and superficial conclusions to discover the Masterโ€™s true opinion or at the very least sense his ambivalence.

[5] I thank Sam Kahan. His comments on my previous โ€œWaiting Six Hours for Dairyโ€ article prompted me towards further investigation and discoveries and the writing of this article.

[6] These birds were eaten by Jews around the Mediterranean for centuries. See Zohar Amarโ€™s ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ืขื•ืฃย  Tel Aviv (2004).

[7]Al-Qirqisani, Kitab al-AnWar, XII, 25:4 โ€œโ€˜in its motherโ€™s milkโ€™ refers only to the milk of its motherโ€.
[8] I wrote more on this here.
[9] Marina Rustow argues in Heresy and the Politics of Community that there was more tolerance of Qaraism in Rabbanite communities outside Spain. The likelihood of influence was thus also increased.
[10]R. Al-fasi may have changed Talmudic halacha in many areas for political anti-Qaraite reasons. See many examples in โ€œR. Yitchak Al-fasiโ€™s Anti-Qaraite Legislative Activityโ€ (here).
[11] Correction:

Inย  โ€œWaiting Six Hours for Dairy- A Rabbanite Response to Qaraismโ€ I wrote the following:

This Qaraite breach of the Oral Law earned them the nickname โ€œthe eaters of meat with milkโ€. This transgression of the Qaraites became symbolic of the entire conflict between the Rabbanite and Qaraite camps.ย  Throughout this period, the two camps were very connected socially, politically, and economically. There were Rabbanite-Qaraite marriages, joint business ventures, and joint communities. The lines between the two camps were not as distinct as we may imagine. At some point in the early eleventh century, the Rabbanite rishonim devised a way to create greater division and social split between the two camps. Choosing the very topic which represented the heart of the schism, they reinterpreted Talmudic passages in a manner which requires waiting six hours between eating red meat and dairy products, further separating the Rabbanites from the Qaraites both halachically and socially. However, Rabbanites and Qaraites could still enjoy a poultry-dairy meal together during community gatherings or business meetings. It was more difficult to redefine an explicit statement in the Talmud allowing poultry and dairy together without any separation in between (ืื’ืจืโ€™s statement). Maimonides was the first to attempt to further widen the gap by including poultry in the six-hour wait category. (Italics added for emphasis.)

This is a mistake. Besides for the occasional pigeon or turtledove, there were no birds which Qaraites could have eaten with Rabbanites.
[12] See Rashba and Ritva on Hullin 104. They probably assumed that Rambam had a tradition that this was the way the Talmud is interpreted.
[13] Daniel Frank,โ€œMay Karaites Eat Chicken? Indeterminacy in Sectarian Halakhic Exegesisโ€, Jewish Biblical Interpretation and Cultural Exchangeed. Natalie B. Dohrman and David Stern, (2008) Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press pgs.124-138.
[14] Harkavy, Zikhron la-rishonim 67-68.
[15] Harkavy, Zikhron la-rishonim 179.
[16] See al-Qirqisani, Kitab al-Anwar 1.16 vol I pg 57. Trans. in W. Lockwood, ย Yaโ€™qub al-Qirqisani on Jewish Sects and Christianity (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, (1984) 150. Also Karaite Anthology:Excerpts from the Early Literatureย  (1980) ed. By Leon Nemoy pgs 32-34.
[17] Al-Qirqisani, Kitabal-Anwar XII.2.3-6. Qirqisani also mentions that- โ€œOne allows chicken, another forbids it, while yet another asserts that he does not know whether it is permitted or forbidden.โ€ (Al-Qirqisani, Kitabal-Anwar I.19.3 vol.1 pg 61). This tells that though the leading Qaraite scholars forbade most birds, there were existent alternate views and practices amongst early sectarians. These lenient views did not become the norm until much later.

[18] Yapheth ben Eli, Comment on Dt 14,11-20
[19] See Frankโ€™s article for relevant citations. An interesting passage in R. Avraham ibn Ezraโ€™s commentary discusses R. Saadya:

ืฉื ื”ืื—ื“. ืืžืจ ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ (=ืจ'ืกืขื“ื™ื”) ื›ื™ ืคื™ืฉื•ืŸ ื™ืื•ืจ ืžืฆืจื™ื... ื•ืื™ืŸ ืจืื™ื” ืขืœ ืคื™ืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื™ืื•ืจ, ืจืง ืฉืชืจื’ื ื”ื—ื•ื™ืœื” ื›ืคื™ ืฆืจื›ื•, ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ืœื• ืงื‘ืœื”. ื•ื›ืŸ ืขืฉื” ื‘ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช, ื•ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื—ื™ื•ืช ื•ื‘ืขื•ืคื•ืชื•ื‘ืื‘ื ื™ื. ืื•ืœื™ ื‘ื—ืœื•ื ืจืื. ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ื˜ืขื” ื‘ืžืงืฆืชื ื›ืืฉืจ ืืคืจืฉ ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•. ื"ื› ืœื ื ืฉืขืŸ ืขืœ ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืชื™ื•, ืื•ืœื™ ืขืฉื” ื›ืŸ ืœื›ื‘ื•ื“ ื”ืฉื, ื‘ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืชืจื’ื ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื‘ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื™ืฉืžืขืืœ ื•ื‘ื›ืชื™ื‘ืชื, ืฉืœื ื™ืืžืจื• ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ื‘ืชื•ืจื” ืžืฆื•ืช ืœื ื™ื“ืขื ื•ื.
(ืื‘ืŸ ืขื–ืจื ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื‘:ื™ื)

R. Saadya Gaon may have fabricated translations for uncertain names of birds in the Torah only to protect Rabbanites from Qaraite ridicule. By supplying translations, Saadya saw to it that Rabbanite Torah readers would not easily sympathize with Qaraite scholars by thinking that, indeed, their Rabbanite tradition knows very little about the meaning of words in the Torah.

[20] This source I add to Frankโ€™s list.
[21] This source I add to Frankโ€™s list.
[22] R. Yaakov Emden writes in his ืกื™ื“ื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืช ื™ืขืงื‘ pg 154ื•ื‘ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื‘ืชื™ื ื—ืชื•ื ืžื ื—ื (ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืจ ืžื›ื™ืจ). I suggest that Menachem is not Menachem ben Machir of 11thcentury Germany, but Menachem ben Saruq (10th century Spain) or another early Spanish poet. That this piyut, in recent times, is traditionally sung mainly in Ashkenazi homes does not disprove Sephardic anti-Qaraite origins.
[23] See Judah Hadassiโ€™s words- ืœืื›ื•ืœ ื•ืœืฉืชื•ืช ื“ื™ ืžื—ื™ื™ืชื• ื•ืงื™ื•ื ื ืคืฉ ื•ืœื ื•ื— ืžืขื˜ ื‘ืžืฉื›ื‘ืš in Haym Soloveitchikโ€™s ย Collected Essays II, pg 391.
[24] The blessing said before kindling the Sabbath lights was likely initiated to strengthen this rabbinic practice in response to the Qaraite custom. See Naftali Vieder, ย ื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉื•ืช ื ื•ืกื— ื”ืชืคื™ืœื” ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ื•ื‘ืžืขืจื™ื‘ Volume I (1998), pg. 343-346.

[25] See O.C. 306:8. Judah Hadassi writes in Eshkol HaKofer 145 (here):
ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื•ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืœื‘ ื•ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื ื•ื“ืงื“ื•ืงื™ื ื•ืขืกืงื™ื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืžืชื•ืจืช ืืœื”ื™ื ืืกื•ืจ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ืžื™ ืงื•ื“ืฉ ื‘ื“ืขืชืš

I thank R. Shimon Szimonowitz for this source and association.

[26] From Shir HaShirim 7:3. The literal context in Shir HaShirim is erotic and sensual. Good poetry has multiple layers of meaning.
[27]ื•ึฐื“ึธื’ึดื™ื is added merely so the โ€œimโ€ will rhyme with ื‘ึฐึผืชึทืขึฒื ื•ึผื’ึดื™ื.
[28] See here.
[29]ย Here(Shemini pg 31). Also see Devarim Reโ€™eh pg 44- here.

[30]Sevel ha-yerushah is a Qaraite term for โ€˜commonly accepted tradition.โ€™
[31]ย  Gan Eden, โ€œInyan shehitah,โ€ chapter 2, 82d
[32]R. Avraham ibn Ezra (1089โ€“1167), Haleviโ€™s contemporary and landsman, makes an interesting comment:
ื”ื“ื•ื›ื™ืคืช. ืืžืจื• ื”ืฆื“ื•ืงื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ืชืจื ื’ื•ืœืช, ื•ืืœื” ื˜ืคืฉื™ ืขื•ืœื, ื›ื™ ืžื™ ื”ื’ื™ื“ ืœื”ื. (ืื‘ืŸ ืขื–ืจื ื•ื™ืงืจื ื™ื:ื™ื˜)

These Qaraite Bible interpreters may have intended to ridicule Rabbanites by arguing that chicken is the non-kosher ื“ื•ื›ื™ืคืช bird. It is apparent that these particular Qaraites still refrained from chicken. If so, the reality reported in Kuzari may not have yet been uniform throughout Spain. Or perhaps Ibn Ezra was recording Qaraite views he encountered along his many global travels.
[32] Qaraites and Rabbanites lived in adjacent quarters in Cairoโ€”Harat al-Yahud and Harat al-Yahud al-Qarain. (here)
[34] Rambam in Moreh Nevuchim 3:48 writes:

ืื‘ืœ ืืกื•ืจ ื‘ืฉืจ ื‘ื—ืœื‘ ื”ืจื™ ืขื ื”ื™ื•ืชื• ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื’ืก ืžืื•ื“ ื‘ืœื™ ืกืคืง, ื•ื’ื•ืจื ืžื™ืœื•ื™ ืจื‘ ืื™ืŸ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืจื—ื•ืง ืœื“ืขืชื™ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื”
ื•ืžืžื” ืฉืžื—ื–ืง ืืช ื–ื” ืœื“ืขืชื™, ืฉืืกื•ืจ ื‘ืฉืจ ื‘ื—ืœื‘ ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจื• ืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ ื‘ื• ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื”ื—ื’, ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื” ื•ื’ื• ื•ื›ืื™ืœื• ื™ืืžืจ ื‘ื—ื’ื›ื ื•ื‘ื™ืืชื›ื ืœื‘ื™ืช ื”'ืืœื•ื”ื™ืš ืœื ืชื‘ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉืชื‘ืฉืœ ืฉื ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืคืœื•ื ื™ืช ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื™ื• ื”ื ืขื•ืฉื™ื, ื–ื”ื• ื”ืžืชืงื‘ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื“ืขืชื™ ื‘ื˜ืขื ืื™ืกื•ืจื•, ืืœื ืฉืœื ืจืื™ืชื™ ืืช ื–ื” ื›ืชื•ื‘ ื‘ืžื” ืฉืขื™ื™ื ืชื™ ืžืกืคืจื™ ื”"ืฆืื‘ื”.


Ibn Ezra:

ื•ื”ื ื” ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ื ื• ื–"ืœ ื”ื—ืžื™ืจื• ืœื”ืกื™ืจ ื›ืœ ืกืคืง, ื•ืืกืจื• ื‘ืฉืจ ื‘ื—ืœื‘, ื•ื”ืฉื ืฉื ืชืŸ ืœื”ื ื—ื›ืžื”, ื”ื•ื ื™ืชืŸ ืžืฉื›ื•ืจืชื ืฉืœื™ืžื”. (ืจ'ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ืŸ ืขื–ืจื ืฉืžื•ืช ื›ื’:ื™ื˜)

Ibn Ezraโ€™s view is that meat cooked in the milk of an animal other than its mother was only forbidden by Rabbinic law (unlike what is understood from Talmud Chullin and Shulchan Aruch Yoreh Deah).
Accordingly, we see a three stage development of changes in biblical law.ย 

First, the early rabbis expanded the Torahโ€™s prohibition against the pagan practice of cooking a kid in its motherโ€™s milk. They said cooking milk in any meat is forbidden. Some rabbis even forbade fowl cooked with dairy. This view eventually became the normative halacha. At this early stage kinuach veโ€™hadacha was required between meat and dairy- though, not between poultry and dairy.

Second, in the beginning of the eleventh century, the rabbinic meat-milk prohibition was expanded by Rabbeinu Chananel to require a separation of six hours between consuming meat and dairy. About this time Qaraites had loosened their mourning customs and began eating meat; they did not hesitate to cook that meat with dairy. R. Chananel created this new law to protect and separate rabbinically-oriented Jews who accepted the concept and binding force of the Oral Torah from influence of the Qaraites.

Third, in the century following R. Chananelโ€™s enactment, Qaraites included chicken, duck and and other birds on their kosher list and cooked these fowl with dairy. Now that Rabbanite and Qaraite Jews shared the same list of kosher birds they could eat poultry meals together. Rambam responded by requiring a six hour wait for poultry as well, to assure that the two groups would not overly socialize - so as to avoid Rabbanite Jews being drawn to and accepting Qaraite views.
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Avunculate Marriage in the Bible

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Avunculate Marriage in the Bibleย 

By Reuven Chaim (Rudolph) Klein

Rabbi Reuven Chaim Klein is the author of theย Lashon HaKodesh: History, Holiness, & Hebrewย [available here]. His book is available online and in bookstores throughout the world. Rabbi Klein published articles in various journals includingย Jewish Bible Quarterly, Kovetz Hamaor,ย Kovetz Chitzei Gibborim,ย andย Kovetzย Kol HaTorah. He studied at premier Yeshivas including the Mir in Jerusalem and BMG in Lakewood. He was most recently a fellow at the Tikvah Institute for Yeshiva Men (Summer 2015) and lives with his wife and children in Beitar Illit, Israel.

Anyone who has a copy of the first edition of his book onย Lashon HaKodeshย is eligible to receive a PDF of the โ€œAdditions and Correctionsโ€ section of the new edition. Please send requests directly to the author at:ย historyofhebrew@gmail.com

The term โ€œavunculate marriageโ€ refers to marriage between a man and his niece. In this paper, we will explore the Bibleโ€™s view on the permissibility of such unions, and discuss several examples of such marriages in the Bible. Not only does rabbinic literature generally presume that such marriages are permitted, the Talmud even encourages it. On the other hand, other sources ban these relationships. The Sadducees believe that the Bible forbids such marriages. While various Tosafists believe that such marriages are Biblically permitted, they still prohibit marrying oneโ€™s niece (at least in some cases) for other reasons.

Abraham & Nahor marry their nieces

Upon close examination, one will find that at least six Biblical personalities married their nieces. Each of these cases can and are interpreted in various ways; calling into question their relevance to our discussion. However, the mere fact that tradition allows for these sorts of interpretations shows that avunculate marriage is compatible with Biblical tradition, and constitutes a legitimate building block in the institution of the Jewish family.

The first two examples of avunculate marriages in the Bible are those between Abraham and Nahor and their respective nieces. The Torah says:

And Terah lived seventy years, and begot Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Now these are the generations of Terah: Terah begot Abram, Nahor, and Haran; and Haran begot Lot.ย And Haran died in the presence of his father Terah in the land of his nativity, in Ur of the Chaldees. And Abram and Nahor took them wives: the name of Abram's wife was Sarai; and the name of Nahor's wife, Milcah, the daughter of Haran, the father of Milcah, and the father of Iscah.ย (Gen. 11:26โ€“29)

This passage records that Abram (i.e. Abraham), Nahor, and Haran were brothers. Nahor married Milcah, the daughter of Haran; and Abraham married Sarai. According to an ancient tradition preserved in rabbinic sources (Seder Olam Ch. 2; TB Megillah 14a; and TB Sanhedrin 69b) and by Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews Book I, Ch. 6), another name for Sarai is Iscah. The assertion that Sarai is the same person as Iscah is supported by the fact that the Torah provides the paternity of Nahorโ€™s wife Milcah, yet does not mention the paternity of Abrahamโ€™s wife Sarai. Given that the Torah delineates one wifeโ€™s father, we would have expected it to mention the father of the other wife as well. This difficulty can be resolved if we assume that Sarai is Iscah, since the Torah states that Haran was the father of Iscah.[1]

If we assume that the Haran who is mentioned as Abraham and Nahorโ€™s father-in-law is the same person as their brother Haran, and that Sarai is Iscah, then this passage records two instances of avunculate marriages: Nahor married his niece Milcah and Abraham married his niece Iscah/Sarai.
However, it is debatable whether Nahor and Abrahamโ€™s marriages to Milcah and Sarai were truly avunculate marriages. In order to claim that they were, one must rely on two assumptions, both of which are subject to dispute. Firstly, Ibn Ezra (to Gen. 11:29) expresses skepticism regarding the identification of Iscah with Sarai.[2]Secondly, even if Iscah is Sarai, some commentators (including Abarbanel (Gen. 11) and the Medieval work Moshav Zeqenim[3]) understand that the Bible refers to two different men named Haran. One was a brother to Abraham and Nahor (and father of Lot); while the other was the father of Iscah/Sarai and Milcah.[4]Accordingly, there is no clear consensus on whether Abraham and Nahor married their nieces.

Dinahโ€™s daughter

Later in Genesis, the Bible relates that when Joseph was the Egyptian viceroy, he married Osnath daughter of Poti-Phera (Gen. 41:45). According to many Midrashic sources (Pirkei Dโ€™Rabbi Eliezer Ch. 38; Masekhet Sofrim 21:9; and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to Gen. 41:45(, Osnath was none other than the daughter of Dinah (Jacobโ€™s daughter) and her rapist, Shechem. This โ€œillegitimateโ€ child was initially shunned by Jacobโ€™s family, but eventually found her way back in by marrying Joseph. Thus, Josephโ€™s wife Osnath was his niece, the daughter of his sister Dinah. Although others understand that Osnath was actually an Egyptian woman,[5]the Midrashic sources above reject the notion that Joseph would marry a non-Israelite woman.

Similarly, Rabbeinu Hayyim Paltiel quotes a Midrash[6] which says that Simeon married the daughter of Dinah who was born by rape through Shechem.[7]According to this Midrash (which is probably mutually exclusive with the above mentioned sources), Simeon married his niece, the daughter of his sister Dinah.

These examples differ from the others under consideration because these are the only explicit examples of a man marrying his sororal niece (i.e. his sisterโ€™s daughter). All the other examples involve a man marrying his fraternal niece (i.e. his brotherโ€™s daughter).

Uziel and Miriam

Amram had three children: Miriam, Aaron, and Moses. The Bible records the marriages of both of Amramโ€™s sons: Moses married Zippora daughter of Jethro (Ex. 2:21), and Aaron married Eliseba daughter of Amminadab (Ex. 6:23). However, the Bible does not tell us about the family of Amramโ€™s daughter Miriam. Rabbinic literature states that she married Caleb (Exodus Rabbahยง1:17; Sifrei, Behaโ€™alothkhaยง78; and TB Sotah 11bโ€“12a). However, according to the apocryphal work The Testament of Amram found amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran (4Q543, 4Q549), Amram gave his daughter Miriam to his younger brother Uzziel to wed. That work understands that the sons of Uzziel listed in the Bible (Ex. 6:22) were born to his wife Miriam. Thus, that work believed that Uzziel married his brotherโ€™s daughter Miriam.

Othniel and Achsa

As related in the book of Joshua (15:16โ€“17) and in the opening chapter of Judges (1:12โ€“13), Caleb offered his daughter Achsa to whoever could conquer the Canaanite stronghold at Kiriath Sepher: And Othniel the son of Kenaz, Caleb's younger brother, took it; and he [Caleb] gave him [Othniel] Achsah his daughter to wife. Othniel succeeded in conquering the city, and thus wins the hand of his brotherโ€™s daughter Achsa in marriage. Most assume that Othniel was Calebโ€™s full brother, although some explain that they shared only a mother, not a father.[8]

R. Ishtori ha-Parhi (1280โ€“1366), the foremost Rabbinic topographer of the Medieval period, writes (Kaftor Va-Fereh Ch. 5) that the Sadducees consider themselves more pious than Rabbinic Jews because they forbid one to marry his brotherโ€™s daughter. Then, ha-Parhi cites this case as a Biblical precedent for allowing such marriages. Nonetheless, ha-Parhi notes that the case of Othniel only proves that one may marry the daughter of his maternal brother, but does not necessarily prove that one can marry the daughter of his paternal siblings.

Elimelech and Naomi

There is a Talmudic discussion (TB Bava Bathra 91a) regarding the Book of Ruth which explains the relationships between its major players. It asserts that Elimelech (Naomiโ€™s husband), Salmon (Boazโ€™s father), the anonymous relative who refused to redeem Naomiโ€™s field, and Naomiโ€™s father were all sons of Nahshon ben Amminadab. According to this understanding, Elimelech married his brotherโ€™s daughterโ€”Naomi.

However, the Midrash (Ruth Rabbahยง6:3) presents a dissenting view that Elimelech was a son of Salmon (and brother to Boaz). According to this understanding, Naomi was not Elimelechโ€™s niece but his first cousin.

Mordecai and Esther

The Talmud (TB Megillah 13a) relates that Mordecai not only raised the orphaned Esther, but he also married her. Furthermore, some sources, including Josephus in Antiquities (Book XI, Ch. 6), Targum Rishon(to Est. 7:6),[9]and the Vulgate (Est. 2:7) explain that Esther was Mordecaiโ€™s niece. Ibn Ezra (to Est. 8:1) and Maimonides (there)[10] also repeat that claim. Together, these two ideas indicate that Mordecai married his niece. Nonetheless, this understanding is simply mistaken as the Bible quite explicitly states that she was his first cousin, not his niece: And he brought up Hadassah, that is, Esther, his uncle's daughterโ€ฆ (Est. 2:7) and Now when the turn of Esther, the daughter of Abihail the uncle of Mordecaiโ€ฆ (Est. 2:15).

The Talmud encourages marrying oneโ€™s neice

The prophet Isaiah tells of several acts of kindness that a man can perform that would prompt God to answer his prayers. He says:

Is it not to deal thy bread to the hungry, and that thou bring the poor that are cast out to thy house? when thou seest the naked, that thou cover him, and that thou hide not thyself from thine own flesh? Then shall thy light break forth as the morning, and thy healing shall spring forth speedily; and thy righteousness shall go before thee, the glory of the LORD shall be thy reward. Then shalt thou call, and the LORD will answer; thou shalt cry, and He will say: 'Here I am.'โ€ฆ (Is. 58:7โ€“9)

When explaining these โ€œgood deedsโ€ in practical terms, the Talmud (TB Yevamot 62bโ€“63a) notes that and that thou hide not thyself from thine own flesh refers to a man who marries his sisterโ€™s daughter. While there is a controversy among the commentators concerning whether the Talmud only means oneโ€™s sororal niece or even his fraternal niece, it is clear that the Talmud encourages a man to marry his niece. Similarly, the Tosefta (Kiddushin1:2) teaches, โ€œA man should not marry a woman until his sororal niece comes of age [so that he can marry her], or until he finds [another woman equally] fitting for him.โ€

Only Sororal niece, or even fraternal niece?

There are two approaches among the earlier commentators in how to understand the Talmudโ€™s endorsement of marrying oneโ€™s niece. Rashi understands that the Talmud only endorses marrying oneโ€™s sororal niece. He explains that this act is considered particularly kind, because a man has a certain longing for his sister (more so than for his brother). Thus, by marrying her daughter, he will insure that his wife will be especially cherished.

However, the Tosafists (Tosafot to TB Yevamot 62b) quote in the name of Rashiโ€™s grandson Rashbam that the Talmudโ€™s endorsement also applies to oneโ€™s fraternal niece, not just to a sororal niece. He explains that the Talmud specifically mentions marrying a sororal niece simply because it is more common that a man's sister will convince him to marry her daughter than it is for his brother to do so.
Nonetheless, Rabbeinu Tam disagrees with this assertion and instead maintains that the Talmud only means that one should marry his sororal niece. There are two modes of justifications given for this approach: Firstly, oneโ€™s sororal niece is similar to her uncle, as the Rabbis say, โ€œMost children are similar to the brothers of their motherโ€ (TB Baba Bathra 110a, Sofrim15:10). This similarity between the two will insure a stronger marriage and that is precisely what the Talmud means to endorse.

Furthermore, the Tosafists quote in the name of Rivan (a son-in-law of Rashi and uncle to Rabbeinu Tam and Rashbam) that it is actually forbidden to marry oneโ€™s fraternal niece, so the Talmud must only have endorsed marrying oneโ€™s sororal niece. They explain that according to the rules of the Levirate marriage (mentioned in Deut. 25:5โ€“10), a man (A) is commanded to marry the widow of his brother (B), if B dies childless. However, the Mishnah teaches (Yevamot1:1) that if the widow is Aโ€™s daughter, then A is exempt from that commandment, because a man may not marry his own daughter. Thus, the Rabbis forbid a man (B) from marrying his niece (Aโ€™s daughter) so as to prevent a situation where the commandment of Levirate marriage will be abolished. This rabbinic ban on marrying oneโ€™s fraternal niece proves that the Talmudโ€™s endorsement of marrying oneโ€™s niece only applies to a sororal niece.[11]

Nonetheless, this proof is incomplete because there are situations where there is no clash with the rules of the Levirate marriage. For example, if A is already deceased (and therefore anyways unable to perform the Levirate marriage), then B should be allowed to marry his daughter. Or if A is only Bโ€™s maternal brother, but not paternal brother (and therefore is not allowed to marry Bโ€™s widow even if she was not his daughter see TB Yevamot 17b), then he should be allowed to marry Aโ€™s daughter. Accordingly, one can argue that in these situations, the Talmud endorses marrying even oneโ€™s fraternal niece. This is especially compelling in light of ha-Parhiโ€™s above mentioned proof-text from Othniel, which shows that one is allowed to marry his maternal brotherโ€™s daughter.

In short, Rabbeinu Tamโ€”in agreement with his grandfather Rashiโ€”understands that the Talmud only endorses marrying oneโ€™s sororal niece, but actually forbids marrying oneโ€™s fraternal niece. Rabbi Betzalel Ashkenazi (1520โ€“1592) testifies that this is also the opinion[12] of the non-yet-extant Tosafot Shantz to the Talmudic Tractate Gittin.[13]In his commentary to the Bible, the โ€ŽAlsatian sage R. Yohanan Luria (1440โ€“1514) also follows Rabbeinu Tamโ€™s view.[14]

However, Maimonides (in his commentary to the Mishnah Nedarim8:5 and in his Laws of Sexual Prohibitions, end of ch. 2) understands that the Talmud does not mention oneโ€™s sororal niece to the exclusion of his fraternal niece. He thus rules that is considered a Mitzvah for a man to marry either his sororal or fraternal niece.[15] R. Meir Abulafia (1170โ€“1244) writes (Yad Ramah to TB Sanhedrin 76b) that marrying oneโ€™s niece is considered commendable because she is the closest relative that a man is allowed to marry. He thus follows his older contemporary Maimonides in offering no distinction between a sororal niece and fraternal niece (because the degree of kinship to both is the same). Nonetheless, he notes that the Talmud mentioned oneโ€™s sisterโ€™s daughter in specific simply because marrying her is even more commendable. By doing so, he is performing an act of kindness towards his sister, who might otherwise have difficulty marrying off her daughter.[16]

R. Moses Isserles (1520โ€“1572) settles the matter by ruling in accordance with the view of Maimonides and Rashbam that one should marry his sororal or fraternal niece (see his glosses to the Shulhan Aruch, Even Haโ€™Ezer ยง2:6; 15:25).

The Rabbinic View regarding Forbidden Relationships

Rabbinic Judaism extends the meanings of the Biblical passages (Lev. 18 and 20) which delineate forbidden relationships. They note that the Torah spoke of the incest laws from the manโ€™s point of reference, but the laws apply equally to a woman. Thus, the Rabbis understand that all incestuous relationships mentioned in the Bible are forbidden to both the man and the woman involved (TB Yevamot 84b). However, the Rabbis do not add more forbidden relationships than those listed by the Bible; they only say that both parties are culpable. The Sadducees, on the other hand, add cases to the Bibleโ€™ list, and forbid more cases of the same types of relationship. In this, the Rabbis understand the Bibleโ€™s meaning differently than the Sadducees and remain more faithful to the text of the Torah than did they.

The Sadducee View Regarding Forbidden Relationships

A Sadducean work found by Solomon Schechter at the Cairo Geniza criticizes those who marry their brother or sisterโ€™s daughter. This work reasons that since according to Mosaic law, a man is not allowed to marry his motherโ€™s sister because she is his mother's flesh (Lev. 18:13), a woman is also not allowed to marry her parentsโ€™ brother. The rationale for such an extension of the Biblical law is that the Torah does not simply list forbidden cases of incest, it lists forbidden categories of relationships. These relationships are determined by degree of kinship, without regard for gender. Thus, if a man is forbidden to his parentsโ€™ sister, the same prohibition says that a woman is forbidden to her parentsโ€™ brother because the degree of kinshipโ€”in this case, parentโ€™s siblingโ€”is the same.[17]
A copy of this document, now known as the Damascus Document, was also found among the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran (4Q270). It contains a condemnation of those men who marry their brothersโ€™ daughters (although that particular source omits the prohibition of oneโ€™s sisterโ€™s daughter). A legal scroll found at Qumran known as Midrash Mishpatim (4Q251) contains a list of the Biblical prohibitions of incest, and includes a man marrying his brotherโ€™s or sisterโ€™s daughter. Another important document from Qumran known as the Temple Scroll(11Q19) also[18]forbids marrying oneโ€™s brotherโ€™s or sisterโ€™s daughter.[19]

Case #:
The Bible (Lev. 18 and 20) forbids a man from marrying hisโ€ฆ
The Rabbis say that this also means that a woman maynot marry her...
The Sadducees would say that this also means that one maynot marry his/herโ€ฆ
Sadducean approach is redundant because it is already included in case #/New case:
1
Mother
Son
Daughter/Father
(13)
2
Sister
Brother
n/a
n/a
3
Fatherโ€™s wife
Husbandโ€™s son
Wifeโ€™s daughter/Motherโ€™s husband
9
4
Granddaughter
Grandfather
Grandmother/Grandson
NEWย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย 
5
Parentโ€™s sister
Siblingsโ€™ son
Niece/Parentโ€™s brother
NEW
6
Fatherโ€™s paternal-brotherโ€™s wife
Husbandโ€™s paternal-brotherโ€™s son
Wifeโ€™s paternal-sisterโ€™s daughter/Parentโ€™s paternal-sisterโ€™s husband, Motherโ€™s paternal-brotherโ€™s wife/Husbandโ€™s paternal-brotherโ€™s son
NEW (2 scenarios)
7
Daughter-in-law
Father-in-law
Mother-in-law/Son-in-law
12
8
Brotherโ€™s wife
Husbandโ€™s brother
Wifeโ€™s sister/Sisterโ€™s husband
11
9
Wifeโ€™s daughter
Motherโ€™s husband
Fatherโ€™s wife/Husbandโ€™s son
3
10
Wifeโ€™s granddaughter
Grandmotherโ€™s husband
Grandfatherโ€™s wife/Husbandโ€™s grandson
NEW
11
Wifeโ€™s sister
Sisterโ€™s husband
Brotherโ€™s wife/Husbandโ€™s brother
8
12
Mother-in-law
Son-in-law
Daughter-in-law/Father-in-law
7
13
Daughter (see fn. 22)
Father
n/a
n/a

The Sadducean method of interpretation creates three pairs of redundancies in the Bibleโ€™s list (Cases 3, 7, 8, 9, 11, and 12) and also creates four new cases of incest which are not mentioned in the Bible, in addition to marrying oneโ€™s niece (Cases 4, 6, two scenarios, 10).

These two points demonstrate the weakness of the Sadducean approach: The method of interpretation used to justify including oneโ€™s niece in the Biblical prohibition against marrying oneโ€™s aunt would create a series of redundancies in the other listed cases of incest. Furthermore, according to the Sadducean methodology of Biblical interpretation, four other relationships should be classified as incestuous (in addition to marrying oneโ€™s niece). However, the Sadducees are inconsistent in that they explicitly mention their added prohibition against marrying oneโ€™s niece, but fail to account for the other new cases of incest which their methodology creates.[20]

In fact, Saul Lieberman argues that the Rabbis classified marrying oneโ€™s niece as a positive deed specifically in order to counter the Sadducean view that marrying oneโ€™s niece is Biblically forbidden. He notes it is the Rabbisโ€™ way to take things which are simply โ€œallowedโ€ by the Bible and encourage people to do them in order to undermine sectarian heretical views.[21]

Interestingly, in his abovementioned work, ha-Parhi notes that the Sadducees were not innovators in banning marriage to a niece: They adopted the prohibition from the Samaritans, who took the idea from the Arabs.[22]Later, the Karaites also followed suit and outlawed uncle-niece marriage.[23]

R. Yehuda Ha-Hassidโ€™s view

The 12th century German leader of the Hassidei Ashkenaz movement, R. Judah Ha-Hassid, declares that one should not marry his niece, neither sororal nor fraternal (in his ethical will ยง22 and in Sefer Hassidim ยง477). However, his understanding of this prohibition clearly differs from the Sadducean approach. The Sadducees understood that the Bible itself prohibits marrying oneโ€™s niece, while Ha-Hassid does not. As a follower of Rabbinic tradition, Ha-Hassid must comply with Talmudic law, yet his mention of a prohibition against marrying oneโ€™s niece is clearly at odds with the Rabbinic approach which not only allows for such marriage, but even encourages it.

R. Ezekiel Landau of Prague (1713โ€“1793), in his halachik responsa (Noda Bโ€™Yehuda, Even HaEzer Tinyanaยง79) offers an innovative solution. He proves that R. Judah Ha-Hassid only wrote the prohibitions in his will and Sefer Hassidim for his descendants โ€” not for all Jews โ€” because otherwise his prohibition would contradict an explicit Talmudic passage which not only allows but even applauds a man marrying his niece.[24] Others interpret Ha-Hassidโ€™s warning in accordance with contemporary science, which warns of the genetic dangers to children born to an uncle and niece.

Nonetheless, Ha-Hassid himself explains his true intent. He writes (Sefer Hassidimยง488) that only a pious individual is allowed to marry his niece in order that his children be similar to himself (per the rabbinic dictum mentioned above). However, a wicked man who only intends to fulfill his own pleasures should not marry his niece, so that his children will not be like him. Thus, Ha-Hassid actually allows for avunculate marriage in the right circumstances, yet elsewhere he writes blankly that it is forbidden so that the not-necessarily-pious masses would refrain from such unions.[25]

Conclusion

There are essentially two general views regarding avunculate marriage in the Bible. The Rabbinic position is that avunculate marriage is permitted by Biblical law. In fact, according to Rabbinic tradition there are even Biblical precedents for allowing such marriages. Nonetheless, the Rabbis do limit the circumstances under which one may marry his niece. They forbid marrying oneโ€™s fraternal niece, since this might interfere with the commandment of the Levirate marriage. There is also the pietistic view of the Hassidei Ashkenaz, who rule that only a pious man may marry his niece (because he will have pure intentions), while the masses should not engage in such unions.

By contrast, the Sadducean approach outlaws avunculate marriage entirely, and attributes this prohibition to the Bible. Even according to Rabbinic tradition, the aforementioned Biblical cases are not unanimously viewed as actually consisting of avunculate marriages. The Sadducees would likely interpret these cases such that they do not serve as precedents for legitimately marrying ones niece.




[1] L. A. Feldman (ed.), Pirush HaRan Al HaTorah (Jerusalem: Machon Shalem, 1968) pg. 149.
[2]While Ibn Ezra does not explicitly note his objections to this identification, other sources quote a question in his name which implies a reject of this tradition. Ibn Ezra asks that if we assume that the Bible lists Terahโ€™s sons in order of their birth, then Abraham was at least two years older than Haran. Furthermore, it is evident from the Bible that Abraham was ten years older than his wife Sarah (Sarai), as it says Then Abraham fell upon his face, and laughed, and said in his heart: 'Shall a child be born unto him that is a hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear?' (Gen. 17:17). This would mean that Haran fathered Iscah/Sarai at the extremely unlikely age of eight. Rabbeinu Hayyim Paltiel answers this objection by noting that the Talmud (TB Sanhedrin 69b) itself already raised this point. In fact, it uses this calculation to prove that in early generations men fathered offspring from as early as the age of eight. See I. S. Lange (ed.),ย Pirushei HaTorah Lโ€™Rabbeinuย Hayyim Paltielย (Jerusalem, 1981) pp. 26โ€“27 and S. Sasson (ed.),ย Moshav Zeqenimย (London, 1959) pg. 15.
[3] S. Sasson (ed.),ย Moshav Zeqenimย (London, 1959) pg. 15.
[4] The commentators propose this distinction because of the fact that the Bible splits the genealogy of Haranโ€™s descendants into two verses. The first verse only mentions Lot, while the second says that he was the father of Milcah and Iscah. However, Kimhi explains these verses in the exact opposite way: He argues that the Torah sought to clarify that Haran was not only the father of Lot, but also of Milcah and Iscah (which follows the view that this passage only discusses one Haran).
[5]Josephus (in Antiquities of the Jews Book II, Ch. 6) also understood that Josephโ€™s wife was literally the daughter of Potiphar. However, see Midrash Sekhel Tov (to Gen. 39:1) and Midrash Tadshe (Ch. 21), printed in J. D. Eisenstein (ed.), Otzar Midrashim (New York, 1915) pg. 486 and also cited by Yalkut Shimoni (Joshua ยง9), which say that Osnath was among several righteous female converts.
[6]This Midrash appears nowhere else, save for Rabbeinu Hayyim Paltielโ€™s commentary. However, there is a similar tradition (Genesis Rabbahยง80:11) which says that Dinah refused to leave the house of Shechem until Simeon promised to marry her. According to that Midrash, Simeon married his sister Dinah, not her daughter.
[7] I. S. Lange (ed.),ย Pirushei HaTorah Lโ€™Rabbeinuย Hayyim Paltielย (Jerusalem, 1981) pg. 166.
[8] The Talmud (TB Temurah 16a), followed by Rashi (to Jos. 15:17 and Jud. 1:13), writes that Othniel was only Calebโ€™s maternal brother, not full brother. The rationale for this statement is that Calebโ€™s father is always given in the Bible as Jephunah (Num. 13:6; 14:30; 26:65; 32:12; 34:19; Deut. 1:36'; Josh. 14:6; 14:14; I Chron. 4:15), while Othniel is always mentioned as a son of Kenaz (Josh. 15:17; Jud. 1:13; 3:9; 3:11; I Chron. 4:13). According to this approach, after Caleb was born, his mother married someone named Kenaz, and bore Othniel to him. Rashi remains consistent with this view when he writes (in his commentary to TB Sukkah 27b) that he is unsure of Othnielโ€™s tribe, because his relationship to Caleb was only through their mother, and matrilineal descent does not impart tribal affiliation.

Kimhi (to Josh. 15:17) adds that in the instances that Caleb also is referred to as a Kenizzite (Num. 32:12; Josh. 14:6; 14:14), this term is a reference to his step-father. Kimhi then suggests that Caleb and Othniel were actually full brothers and that their father had two names: Jephunah and Kenaz (which is why Caleb is also called a Kenizzite). Ultimately, Kimhi rejects this approach and argues that the appellation โ€œKenizziteโ€ refers to the familyof Kenaz, a common ancestor of both Caleb and Othniel. Ha-Parhi (cited below) and Abarbanel (to Josh. 15:16 and in his introduction to Judges) concur with Kimhiโ€™s conclusion. [It has yet to be explored whether the term Kenizzite used in connection with Caleb is related to the Kenizzites, a Canaanite tribe which God promised Abraham will be conquered by the Israelites (Gen. 15:19).]
[9]Although, see Targum Rishon earlier (to Esther 2:7 and 2:15) who explicitly writes that Esther was the daughter of Mordecaiโ€™s uncle, making them first-cousins, not niece and uncle.
[10] Y. Rivlin (ed.), Pirush Megillat EstherLโ€™Rambam (Jerusalem, 1952) pg. 60.
[11] See Tosafot (TB Yevamot 99a) and Tosafot Yeshanim (ibid. 62b). The same point is made earlier by Rav Sherira Gaon (who predated Rabbeinu Tam) in a responsum printed by M. Grossberg (ed.), Gvul Menashe (Frankfurt, 1899) pg. 15.
[12] R. Abraham Haim Schor (d. 1632) writes (Torat Haim to TB Sanhedrin76b) that marrying oneโ€™s sororal niece is especially praiseworthy because according to Biblical law, a daughter does not inherit her deceased fatherโ€™s property unless he has no sons. Accordingly, there is likely animosity between a man and his sister, for the former will inherit their fatherโ€™s property and the latter will not. Therefore, it is especially praiseworthy for a man to marry his sisterโ€™s daughter in order to alleviate this animosity and show his sister that even she will derive benefit from their deceased fatherโ€™s estate. Tosafot Shantz, as quoted by Ashkenazi, offers a very similar approach and adds that marrying oneโ€™s brotherโ€™s daughter does not achieve the same effect because oneโ€™s paternal brother will in any case inherit his fatherโ€™s property. In this, Tosafot Shantz offers another strong argument for Rabbeinu Tamโ€™s position.
[13] M. Y. Blau (ed.), Shitah Mekubetzet Yevamot (New York: Shitat HaKadmonim, 1986) pg. 302. See also Shitah Mekubetzet (to TB Nedarim 63b) who also seems so inclined.
[14] Y. Hoffman (ed.), Meshivat Nefesh (Jerusalem: Machon Yerushalayim, 1998) pg. 18.
[15] See also Meiri (to TB Yevamot 62b) who seems to agree with Maimonides.
[16] In a similar explanation, R. Todros HaLevi ben Joseph Abulafia (1225โ€“1285), a nephew of R. Meir Abulafia, writes that marrying oneโ€™s sisterโ€™s daughter is especially meritous because his sister likely has financial difficulties in marrying off her daughter. Hida (Birkei Yosef to Even HaEzerยง2:6) quotes this unpublished explanation of R. Todros and adds that according to this, there is no difference between a sororal niece and a fraternal niece, the difference is only in whether the groomโ€™s sibling has financial difficulties.
[17] S. Schechter (ed.), Documents of Jewish Sectaries Vol. 1, Fragments of a Zadokite Work (Cambridge, 1910) pg. 5.
[18]Interestingly, Midrash Mishpatim lists the prohibition of marrying oneโ€™s niece before it lists oneโ€™s aunt, while the Temple Scroll lists marrying oneโ€™s niece afterwards.
[19] See E. Eshel, โ€œThe Proper Marriage according to the Genesis Apocryphon and Related Texts,โ€ Meghillot: Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls Vol. 8โ€“9 (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 2010) pp. 29โ€“51, who discusses numerous examples of the DSS embellishing Biblical passages by adding marriages between first cousins. She explains that the authors of those scrolls added cases of marriage between first cousins and not between man and his niece precisely because the Qumranic sect believed the latter to be forbidden.
[20] It should be noted that three out of four of those cases (i.e. grandmother, motherโ€™s paternal brotherโ€™s wife, and grandfatherโ€™s wife) are explicitly banned by Rabbinic decree, even though according to Rabbinic interpretation they are permitted by Biblical law (see TB Yevamot 21a).
[21] S. Lieberman, Tosefta Ki-fshutah (New York: JTS, 1973) pg. 915. Cf. E. Segal, "Sarah and Iscah: Method and Message in Midrashic Tradition", JQR,vol. 82:4, pp. 417โ€“429 who seems content to similarly explain the Midrashic identification of Sarah with Iscah (mentioned above).
[22]Ha-Parhi, in his abovementioned polemic against Sadducees, writes that should one meet a Sadducee, one should tell him that according to Sadducean religion one is allowed to marry his daughter because the Bible does not explicitly forbid it and the Sadducees do not recognize the hermeneutical arguments set forth by the Rabbis (TB Sanhedrin 76a) for its prohibition. However, in light of the above, Ha-Parhiโ€™s polemic is no longer applicable because according to the Sadduceesโ€™ internal logic, marrying oneโ€™s daughter is included in the prohibition of marrying oneโ€™s mother because both are a violation of the child-parent relationship. That is, the Torah forbids a man to lie with his mother and both Rabbinic and Sadducean interpretation extend this prohibition to a woman who is forbidden from lying with her son. However, Sadducean interpretation would also argue that included in this prohibition is a man lying with his daughter because the Torahโ€™s intent is not simply to forbid a man and his mother, but to declare incestuous any fornication between the child-parent line. The Rabbis, on the other hand, understood that this is not the intent of the Torah and instead offer their own source for the prohibition of marrying oneโ€™s daughter.
[23]ย N.A. Stillman (ed.), "Malik al-Ramlฤซ."ย Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World (Brill Online, 2013).
[24]For an extensive survey of various authorities who agree or disagree with Landauโ€™s characterization of the prohibition cited by R. Yehuda Ha-Hassid, see Sdei Hemed Vol. 7 (Brooklyn: Kohath Publishing, 1950) pp. 2483ff.
[25] See S. Guttman (ed.), Sefer Tzava'at Rabbi Yehuda HaHassid HaMefoar(Jerusalem: Otzar HaPoskim, 2011) pp. 177โ€“188 for an in-depth analysis of Ha-Hassidโ€™s stance on the topic.
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David Assaf - A Farewell to Eitam Henkin

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A Farewell to Eitam Henkin
by David Assaf

Professor David Assaf is the Sir Isaac Wolfson Chair of Jewish Studies, the Chair of the Department of Jewish History, and the Director of the Institute for the History of Polish Jewry and Israel-Poland Relations, at Tel-Aviv University.

A Hebrew version of this essay appeared at the Oneg Shabbat blog (6 October 2015) (http://onegshabbat.blogspot.co.il/2015/10/blog-post.html), and was translated by Daniel Tabak of New York, with permission of Professor David Assaf.

This is his first contribution to the Seforim blog.


Eitam Henkin (1984-2015), who was cruelly murdered with his wife Naโ€™ama on the third day of Hol Ha-Moโ€˜ed Sukkot (1 October 2015), was my student.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Anyone who has read news about him in print media or on websites, which refer to him with the title โ€œRabbi,โ€ may have gotten the impression that Eitam Henkin was just another rabbi, filling some rabbinic post or teaching Talmud in a kollel. While it is true that Eitam received ordination from the Chief Rabbinate, he did not at all view himself as a โ€œrabbi,โ€ and serving in a rabbinic post or supporting himself from one did not cross his mind. His studies for ordination (2007-2011) constituted a natural, intellectual outgrowth of his yeshiva studies; they formed part and parcel of a curiosity and erudition from which he was never satisfied. Eitam regarded himself first and foremost as an incipient academic scholar, who was training himself, through a deliberate but sure process of scholarly maturation, to become a social historian of the Jews of Eastern Europe. This was his greatest passion: it burned within him and moved him, and he devoted his career to it. Were it not for the evil hand that squeezed the gunโ€™s trigger and took his young life, the world of Jewish studies undoubtedly would have had an outstanding, venerable scholar.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  I spent that bitter and frenzied night outside the country. The terrible news reached me in the dead of night, hitting me hard like a sledgehammer. In my hotel room in Chernovich, Ukraine, so far from home, my thoughts wandered ceaselessly to those moments of sheer terror that Eitam and Naโ€˜ama had to face, to the horror that unfolded before the eyes of the four children who saw their parents executed, and to the incomprehensible loss of someone with whom I had spoken just the other day and had developed plans, someone on whom I had pinned such high hopes. There was a manโ€”look, he is no more . . .

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  The next day, I stood with my colleagues in Chernovich, near the house of Eliezer Steinbarg (1880-1932), a Yiddish author and poet mostly famous for his parables. In a shaky voice I read for them the fine parable about the bayonet and the needleโ€”in the Hebrew translation of Hananiah Reichmanโ€”dedicating it to the memory of Eitam and his wife, who in those very moments were being laid to rest in Jerusalem.

The Bayonet and the Needle

A man (a Tom, a Dick, or some such epithet)
comes from the wars with a rifle and a bayonet,
and in a drawer he puts them prone,
where a thin little needle has lain alone.

โ€œNow thereโ€™s a needle hugely made,โ€
the little needle ponders as it sees the blade.
โ€œOut of iron or of tin, no doubt, it sews metal britches,
and quickly too, with Goliath stitches,
for a Gog Magog perhaps, or any big-time giant.โ€

But the bayonet is thoughtfully defiant.
โ€œHey, look! A bayonette! A little midget!
How come the townโ€™s not all a-fidget
crowding round this tiny pup?
What a funny sight! Iโ€™ve to tease this bird!
Come, donโ€™t be modest, pal! Is the rumor true? I heard
youโ€™re a hot one. When you get mad the jig is up.
With one pierce, folks say, you do in seven flies!โ€

The needle cries, โ€œUntruths and lies!
By the Torahโ€™s coverlet I swear
that I pierce linen, linen onlyโ€ฆItโ€™s a sort of wareโ€ฆโ€
โ€œHo ho,โ€ the rifle fires off a round of laughter.
โ€œHo ho ho! Stabs linen! Itโ€™s linen heโ€™s after!โ€

โ€œYou expect me, then, to stitch through
tin?โ€ the needle asks. โ€œAh, I feel if I like you
were biggerโ€ฆโ€

โ€œOh, my barrelโ€™s bursting,โ€ roars the rifle. โ€œMy triggerโ€”
itโ€™s tripping! Oh me! Canโ€™t take this sort of gaff.โ€
โ€œPardon me,โ€ the needle says. โ€œI meant no harm therein.
What then do you do? You donโ€™t stitch linen, donโ€™t stitch tin?โ€

โ€œPeople! We stab people!โ€ says the bayonet.

But now the needle starts to laugh,
and it may still be laughing yet.
With ha and hee and ho ho ho.
โ€œWhen I pierce linen, one stitch, and then another, loโ€”
I make a shirt, a sleeve, a dress, a hem.
But people you can pierce forever, what will you create from them?โ€

Eitam was a wunderkind. I first met him in 2007. At the time he was an avrekh meshi (by his own definition), a fine young yeshiva fellow, all of twenty-three years old. He was a student at Yeshivat Nir in Kiryat Arba, with a long list of publications in Torah journals already trailing him. He contacted me via e-mail, and after a few exchanges I invited him to meet. He came. We spoke at length, and I have cared about him ever since. From his articles and our many conversations I discerned right away that he had that certain je ne sais quoi. He had those qualities, the personality, and the capabilityโ€”elusive, unquantifiable, and indefinableโ€”of someone meant to be a historian, and a good historian at that.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  I did not have to press especially hard to convince him that his placeโ€”his destinyโ€”did not lie between the walls of the yeshiva, and that he should not squander his talents on the niceties of halakha. He needed to enroll in university and train himself professionally for what truly interested him, for what he truly loved: critical historical scholarship.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Eitam went on to register for studies at the Open University, and within three years (2009-2012), together with the completion of his studies at the yeshiva, he earned his bachelorโ€™s degree with honors. Immediately afterwards he signed up for a masterโ€™s degree in Jewish history at Tel-Aviv University, and under my supervision completed an exemplary thesis in 2013 titled โ€œFrom Hibbat Zion to Anti-Zionism: Changes in East-European Orthodoxy โ€“ Rabbi David Friedman of Karlin (1828-1915) as a Case Study.โ€

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Eitam, hailing from a world of traditional yeshiva study that is poles apart from the academic world, slid into his university studies effortlessly. He rapidly internalized academic discourse, with its patterns of thinking and writing, and began to taste the distinct savors of that world. To take one example, in July 2014 he participated in an academic conferenceโ€”his very firstโ€”for early doctoral students, both Israeli and Polish, that took place in Wrocล‚aw, Poland. There he delivered (another first) a lecture in English, and got deep satisfaction from meeting other similarly-aged scholars working on topics that overlapped with his own. I asked him quite often whether as an observant Jew he found it difficult to study at the especially open and โ€œsecularโ€ Tel-Aviv campus. He answered in the negative, saying that he never felt any difficulty whatsoever.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  I was deeply fond ofhim and respected him. I loved his easygoing and optimistic personality, his simple humility, the smile permanently spread across his face. I loved his positive approach to everything, and especially loved his sarcastic humor, his ability to laugh at himself, at his world, at the settlers (so far as I could sense he was very moderate and distant from political or messianic fervor), at the Orthodox world in which he lived, and at the ultra-Orthodox world that was his object of study. He was a man after my own heart, and I have the sense that the feeling was mutual. When I told him one time that I was prepared to be his adviser because I was a stickler for always having at least one doctoral student who was a religious settler, so as to avoid being criticized for being closed-minded and intolerant, he responded with a grinโ€ฆ

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  More than my affection for him, I respectedhim for his vast knowledge, ability to learn, persistence,thoroughness, diligence, efficiency, original and critical manner of thinking, excellent writing style, ability to learn from one and all, and generosity in sharing his knowledge with everyone. In my heart of hearts I felt satisfaction and pride athavingnabbed such a student.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Immediately after finishing his masterโ€™s degree, Eitam registered for doctoral studies. 2014 was dedicated to fleshing out a topic and writing a proposal. Eitam was particularly interested in the status of the rabbinate in Jewish Lithuania at the end of the nineteenth century, and he collected a tremendously broad trove of material, sorted on note cards and his computer, on innumerable rabbis who served in many small towns. He endeavored to describe the social status of this unique class in order to get at the social types that comprised it in the towns and cities. In the end, however, for various reasons that I will not spell out here, we decided in unison to abandon the topic and search for another. I suggested that he write a critical biography of the Hafetz Hayyim , Rabbi Israel Meir Hakohen of Radin (1839-1933), the most venerated personality in the Haredi world of the twentieth century and, practically speaking,until today. (Just two weeks ago I wrote a blog post describing my own recent visit to Radin, wherein I quoted things from Eitam. Who could have imagined then what would happen a short time later?) Eitam was reticent at first. โ€œWhat new things can possibly be said about the Hafetz Hayyim?โ€ he asked skeptically, but as more time passed and he deepened his research he became convinced that it was in fact a suitable topic. As was his wont, he immersed himself in the topic and after a short time wrote a magnificent proposal. At the end of March 2015 his proposal was accepted to write a doctorate under my guidance, whose topic would be โ€œRabbi Israel Meir Hakohen (Hafetz Hayyim): A Biography.โ€

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  A short time later I proposed Eitam as a nominee of Tel-Aviv University for a Nathan Rotenstreich scholarship, which is the most prestigious scholarshipgranted today to doctoral students in Israeli universities, and, needless to say, it is competitive. Of course, as I predicted, Eitam won it. He responded to the newswith characteristic restraint, but his joy could not be contained. It was obvious when I gave him the news that he was the happiest man alive.In order to receive the Rotenstreich Scholarship, students must free themselves from all other pursuits anddevote themselves solely to scholarship and completion of the doctorate within three years.Eitam promised to do so, and he undoubtedly would have made good on that promise. He would have received the first payment in November 2015. Now, tragically, we have all lost out on this tremendous opportunity.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  One could go on and on singing Eitamโ€™s praises, and presumably others will yet do so. I feel satisfied by including a letter of recommendation that I wrote about him to my colleagues on the Rotenstreich Scholarship Committee. Recommenders typically tend to exaggerate in praising their nominees, but let heaven and earth be my witness that in this case I meant every single word that I wrote.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  May his memory be blessed.

[1] Eliezer Shtaynbarg, The Jewish Book of Fables: Selected Works, edited, translated from the Yiddish, and with an introduction by Curt Leviant, illustrated by Dana Craft (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2003), 20-23.

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ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  12 Nissan 5775 - 1 April 2015

RE: Recommendation for Mr. Eitam Henkin for the Rotenstreich Scholarship (22nd Cycle)

ย  ย  ย  ย  ย  ย  I hereby warmly recommend, as it is customarily said, that my student Mr. Eitam Henkin be chosen as a nominee of the faculty and university for a Rotenstreich Scholarship for years 5776-5778..

ย  ย  ย  ย  ย  ย  Henkin, who completed his Masterโ€™s studies at Tel-Aviv University with honors, and whose proposal was just now approved as a PhD candidate, is not the usual student of our institution, and would that there were many more of his caliber. One could say that I brought him to us with my own two hands, and I have invested significant time and much energy convincing him to register for academic studies so that at the end of the day he could write his doctorate under my guidance.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Henkin is what people call a โ€œyeshiva student,โ€ and he has spent his adult life in national-religious Torah institutions, wherein he acquired his comprehensive Torah knowledge, assimilated analytic methodology, and even received rabbinic ordination. As a scion of a sprawling, pedigreed family of rabbis and scholars, he has also revealed within himself an indomitable inclination to diverge from the typical path of Torah and invest a serious amount of his energy in historical scholarship. Naturally, Henkin gravitates toward studies of the religious lives and worlds of rabbis, yeshiva deans, and spiritual trends among Eastern European Jews in the modern period. His enormous curiosity, creative thinking, and natural propensity for study and research with which he has been endowed, as well his impressive self-discipline and independence, assisted him in mastering broad fields of knowledge through his own abilities and without the help of experts. The scope of his knowledge of Jewish history more generally, and of the Jews of Eastern Europe more specifically, including familiarity with the scholarly literature in every language, is cause for astonishment.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  What is more, Henkin has already managed to publish twenty scholarly articles (!) and even a book (To Take Root: Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook and the Jewish National Fund [Jerusalem, 2012], co-authored with Rabbi Avraham Wasserman, but in practice the research and writing were wholly Eitamโ€™s). Most of them deal with varied perspectives on the spiritual and religious lives of the Jews of Eastern Europe in the nineteenth century. It may be true that these articles were published in Torah-academic journals, which we often refer toโ€”not always with justificationโ€”as โ€œnot peer-reviewed,โ€ but I can attest that the articles in question are scholarly in every sense; they could undoubtedly be published in recognized academic journals. I do not know many doctoral students whose baseline is as high and impressive as that of Eitam Henkin.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Given that I see in Henkin a promising and very talented scholar, I have placed high hopes in the results of the research he has taken upon himself for his doctorate under my guidance: the writing of a critical biography on one of the most authoritative personalitiesโ€”one could say without hesitation the most โ€œiconicโ€โ€”of the Haredi world of the last century, Israel Meir Hakohen of Radin, better known by his appellation (based on his famous book) โ€œthe Hafetz Hayyim.โ€ We are speaking of a personality who lived relatively close to us in time (so there exists a relative abundance of sources), yet remains concealed under a thick cover of Orthodox hagiography. One cannot exaggerate the enormous influence of the Hafetz Hayyim on the halakhic formation, atmosphere, and lifestyle of the contemporary Haredi world, with all its factions and movements, andespecially what is referred to as the โ€œLitvish" world. Nevertheless, to this day no significant study exists that places this complex personalityโ€”with the stages of his life, his multifarious writings, communal activities, and the process of his โ€œsanctificationโ€ after his deathโ€”against the background of his time and place from an academic, critical perspective that brings to bear various scholarly methodologies.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Henkinโ€™s doctoral proposal was approved literally a few days ago, and I am convinced that he will embark upon the process of research and writing with intense momentum, keeping pace with the timetable expected of him for completion of the doctorate.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  At this stage of his life, as he intends to dedicate all of his energy and time to academic studies, Henkin must struggle with providing for his household (he has four small children). He supports himself from part-time jobs of editing, writing, and teaching, but his heart is in scholarship and the great challenge that stands before him in writing his doctorate.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Granting Eitam Henkin the Rotenstreich Scholarship would benefit him and the Scholarship. Not only would it enable him to free himself from the yoke of those minor, annoying jobs and dedicate all his time to scholarship, but it would also demonstrate the universityโ€™s recognition of his status as an outstanding student. I try to exercise restraint and minimize usage of a description like โ€œoutstanding,โ€ and I certainly do not bestow it upon all of my students; Henkin, however, deserves it. The scholarship would assist him, without a doubt, in realizing his scholarly capabilities through writing a most important doctorate, which would add a sorely needed and lacking layer to our knowledge of the world of Torah, the rabbinate, and Jewish life in Eastern Europe of the preceding generations. As for my part, as Eitamโ€™s advisor I obligate myself to furnish the matching amount of the scholarship from the research budgets at my disposal.
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย 
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Warm regards,
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย 
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Professor David Assaf
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Department of Jewish History
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Head of the Institute for the History of Polish Jewry and Israel-Poland Relations
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Sir Isaac Wolfson Chair of Jewish Studies


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In my archive I found a document that Eitam wrote (in Hebrew) for me in preparation for his submission for the Rotenstreich scholarship. He described himself with humility and good humor:

Scholarly โ€œAutobiographyโ€
by Eitam Henkin

My name is Eitam Henkin. I was born in 5744 (1984) and raised in Religious Zionist Institutions. I studied in a hesder yeshiva and served in the Golani Brigade as an infantryman and squad leader.I married during my army service. After being discharged, I began to study in a kollel in order to receive ordination from the Chief Rabbinate of Israel (which I completed in 5771, 2011). At the same time, I began independent writing and research in the field of history out of a personal interest for this field that I have had as far back as I can remember (some describe this as โ€œbeing bitten by the bug of history,โ€ but with me perhaps we may be talking about a congenital predisposition).

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  As things go, the fields of interest that I began to research fell within the boundaries closest to the world in which I was ensconced: the rabbinate and rabbis. I published my first articles in 5767-5768 (2007-2008) in an annual journal published (under my editorship) at the hesder yeshiva in which I studied. After about a year, I began publishing articles in outside publications linked to Religious Zionism, such as Akdamot and Ha-Maโ€™ayan.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  At the same time, I began to make my way into the world of academia. In the wake of an article I wrote about Rabbi Baruch Epsteinโ€™s memoirs Mekor Barukh and his attitude to Hasidism, I reached out (in 5767, 2007) to Prof. David Assaf for advice on aspects of the article, and on Prof. Assafโ€™s initiative the conversation turned into a meeting in which I was introduced to the possibility of entering the world of the professional historian, after which I took my first steps on my academic path.
ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  I pursued my bachelorโ€™s degree in history at the Open Universityโ€”a path that proved quite practical given my other activities, and after completing it (with honors) I registered for a masterโ€™s degree in the department of Jewish history at Tel-Aviv University, where I finished (in 5773, 2013) my thesis titled โ€œโ€˜From Hibbat Zion to Anti-Zionism: Changes in East-European Orthodoxy โ€“ Rabbi David Friedman of Karlin (1828-1915) as a Case Study,โ€ which I wrote under the supervision of Prof. Assaf and which received a grade of 95. I subsequently signed up for doctoral studies, and very recently my doctoral proposal was accepted, with the topic โ€œRabbi Israel Meir Hakohen of Radin (Hafetz Hayyim): A Biography,โ€ also under the supervision of Prof. Assaf.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  In tandem with my progress in academic studies (which have moved from being a side interest to being front and center in my life, even if not the only thing), I continued my historical research and writing independently, publishing articles in various journals, although they were not peer-reviewed. To this day, I have published in this manner over twenty articles on Jewish history, in which my research interest has focused on two fixed pieces: Jewish society in Imperial Russia at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century, which has been primary and central, and within that more specifically the Orthodox segment of the population and rabbinic circles; and the second piece is the life and times of Rabbi Abraham Isaac Hakohen Kook.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  My aforementioned thesis and the doctoral work I have begun relate to the first piece. Also connected isthe critical biography that I wrote on my own (before and during my first years of academic study) on Rabbi Yehiel Mikhl Halevi Epstein, author of the Arukh Ha-Shulhan, a biography that was accepted for publication by the academic press of Touro College in the United States and which is to appear in print over the coming year.

ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Related to the second piece, aside from many articles, is my latest book, which I co-authored with Rabbi Avraham Wasserman by his invitation, titled To Take Root: Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook and the Jewish National Fund. It was published in 5772 (2012) with the support and funding of the Jewish National Fund.


ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย ย  Parallel to my academic studies and scholarly publications, these days I also serve out of personal interest as the section editor for historical articles in the journal Asif, put out by the Union of Hesder Yeshivot (continuing my build-up of editorial experience via additional projects in preceding years). Similarly, from 5770 (2010) on I have given lectures on the history of halakha at Midreshet Nishmat in Jerusalem. This year I am a doctoral fellow at the Kohelet Policy Forum. It should be self-evident, however, that I expect to concentrate my main interest and scholarly efforts in the coming years on my doctoral work on the Hafetz Hayyim.
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Hot Tears For A Close Friend: Rabbi Eitam Henkin HYโ€D

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Hot Tears For A Close Friend: Rabbi Eitam Henkin HYโ€D
by Rabbi Yechiel Goldhaber
translated by Daniel Tabak

I shall never forget when I first met Rabbi Eitam Henkin HYโ€D three years ago. At the time I had begun preparing a study on the parting of minds in the kollels of the Old Yishuv in Jerusalem 150 years ago. I managed to get my hands on a lot of rare sources, but the morass of material only beclouded the depths of the goings-on in the city at the time. The main purpose of my study was to ascertain the causes of dispute between the various ethnic groups and kollels, but the facts grew ever larger and more ramified, and soon obscurity overtook clarity. As the saying goes, I could not see the forest for the trees.

One key element in the conflict centered upon Rabbi Yechiel Michel Pines. On the one hand, Rabbi Shmuel Salant viewed him as an ally, but on the other, Rabbi Yehoshua Leib Diskin, head of the rabbinical court of Brisk, loathed him. My study successfully identified this dispute as one of the main points of contention that whipped everyone in the city into a frenzy, a flashpoint whose consequences lasted decades.

Needless to say, I had the articles by Eitam Henkin about Rabbi Pines in front of me. I read them multiple times, and felt as if he had lived and breathed the alleyways of the Old City in those times. I struck up a connection with him, and he shared with me his textured perspective of the city with all its troubles. From then one, not two weeks passed when we did not speak by telephone about it.

About a year ago I needed to finish an article on Rabbi Shmuel Salantโ€™s search for a rabbi who would support him as he entered his twilight years. I uncovered some rare documentation that shed new light on this episode, but to my dismay, I could not find anyone with whom to speak in order to clarify this complicated issue. Only Eitam Henkin lent me his ear.

In the meantime, we continued to speak about his great-grandfather Rabbi Yosef Eliyahu Henkin ztโ€l. I would contribute some of what I knew, and he would include me in his work on collecting and compiling material about his great-grandfather. Our discussions took us from Lithuania all the way to the United States, and everything in between.

We wrote each other a lot, and we had many conversations. He would begin each conversation by saying that he was very busy with his studies and editing articles, yet he still devoted many minutes to me.

I tried to get a hold of Eitam Henkinย  many times on the phone to obtain some point of clarification, but he was not always available. Quite often his wife Naโ€™ama HYโ€D picked up the phone and I would โ€œcomplainโ€ that I was having trouble โ€œcatchingโ€ him on the phone. When I explained to her the urgency of the matter, because I had to publish the article in two weeksโ€™ time, her answer was characteristic of a Torah scholarโ€™s wife! She would respond very simply: โ€œmy husband is soaring in Torah study. I too take care not to disturb him.โ€ When I heard sentences like those, I felt deep embarrassment.

His textual analysis was razor-sharp; he took pains with every word and letter. More than he questioned the written letter he investigated and interrogated the unwritten word or sentence absent from the document โ€” โ€œwhy was it missing?โ€ he would ask, along with a barrage of similar questions.

His answers and conclusions were honest and artless; one never found him resolving a perplexity with a forced answer. How rare is that! His level of understanding in any given topic was very advanced, as someone who had completed many tractates of the Talmud along with their commentaries.

His modesty far exceeded what one could guess. He never boasted. His honesty was ever-present, in every field and topic, be it in Torah study, academic research, or this-worldly life.

Our final conversation took place between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. I called him to wish him a Shana Tova. I mentioned the well-known bafflement about the statement of the Rabbis that there were never such good days for the Jewish people as Yom Kippur, when Jewish girls would involve themselves in happy mattersโ€ฆbut is it not the most frightening day of the entire year? He responded on the spot:

โ€œIf every positive thing leads to happiness, then isnโ€™t it logical that something negative that becomes positive should generate even greater joy? Within the darkness light can be seen. That is the deeper truth of repentance done out of love, from which willful sins are treated as merits; the negative causes an outburst of happiness. The Jewish girls chose this day specifically to concern themselves with matters of love, for there is no love quite like Godโ€™s love for his wayward servants who have reconciled themselves with him.โ€

Such words befit the one who uttered themโ€ฆ

Few are comparable to this wise young man, whose comings and goings were marked by humility, who was as familiar with the paths of the Heavenly Jerusalem as he was with the roads of Mateh Binyamin.


May Eitam and Naโ€™amaโ€™s memory be blessed.
โ†ง

ืขืงื™ื“ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ืจืื™ ื”ืœื›ื”

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ืขืงื™ื“ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ืจืื™ ื”ืœื›ื”
ืžืืช ื™ื—ื™ืืœ ื’ื•ืœื“ื”ื‘ืจ
There have been numerous articles and even entire books about the Akedah. Here is a new ย collection of material on the subject from Rabbi Yechiel Goldhaber.

ื”ื ื™ืฆื•ืฅ ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ ื”ืžืชื ืฆื ืฅ ื•ื‘ื•ืขืจ ื‘ืœื‘ ื›ืœ ื ืคืฉ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืคื ื™ืžื”, ื™ื™ืกื•ื“ื• ื•ืžืงื•ืจื• ืžืื•ืชื• ืขืžื•ื“ ืœื‘ืช ืืฉ ืงื•ื“ืฉ ืฉื™ืงื“ ื•ื”ืื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื•ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช ื›ื•ืœื, ื ืฉื’ื‘ ื•ื ืขืœื ืžื”ืฉื’ืช ืื ื•ืฉ, ื˜ืžื™ืจ ื•ืžื›ื•ืกื” ืืฃ ืžืฉืจืคื™ ืžืขืœื” ื•ืžืœืื›ื™ ืžืจื•ื. ืจืฉืคื™ื” ืจืฉืคื™ ืืฉ, ืžืขืžื“ ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉื” ืฉืขืงื“ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ื ื• ื™ื—ื™ื“ื• ืœื”'.

ืžืขืžื“ ื–ื” ื›ืœ ื›ื•ืœื• "ืœื‘"โ€“ ืื”ื‘ื” ื•ื™ืจืื”, ืฆืžืื•ืŸ ื•ื“ื‘ื™ืงื•ืช ืขื“ ื›ืœื•ืช ื”ื ืคืฉ. ืืš ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืฉื’ื‘ื” ื•ืจื•ืžืžื•ืชื”, ืขื ื–ืืช, ื—ื›ืžื™ ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืœื ืžื ืขื• ืขืฆืžื ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืขื ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื‘ื›ืœื™ ื”"ืžื•ื—", ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ, ืœื‘ื—ื ื” ื‘ื›ื•ืจ ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื•ื‘ืžืื–ื ื™ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜, ืขืœ ืคืจื˜ื™ื” ื•ื“ืงื“ื•ืงื™ื”.

ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืงื“ื™ื ื•ืœื•ืžืจ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื’ื“ืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ืขืœืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื—ื–"ืœ ืžืกืจื• ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืงืจื‘ืŸ. ื™ืกื•ื“ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืขื•ื’ื ื™ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ (ื‘ืจ"ืจ ื ื”, ื–): ืืžืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœืคื ื™ื•, ืจื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ื ื™ืฉ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื‘ืœื ื›ื”ืŸ?, ื"ืœ ื”ืงื‘"ื”, ื›ื‘ืจ ืžื™ื ื™ืชืš ืฉืชื”ื ื›ื”ืŸ[1]. ื•ื›ืŸ ื“ื™ื™ืง ื”ื—ืช"ืก (ื™ื•"ื“ ืจืœื“) ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ืค"ื‘ ืžื‘ื™ืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื”"ื‘, (ื”ืžืชืืจ ืืช ื”ืฉืชืœืฉืœื•ืช ื”ืงืจื‘ืช ื”ืงืจื‘ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืจ ื”ืžื•ืจื™ื”), ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ืงื™ื“ืฉ ืืช ืžืงื•ื ื”ืžืงื“ืฉ ื‘ืงื“ื•ืฉืช ื”ืžืงื“ืฉ ื‘ืฉืขืช ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”.

ืื ื›ื ื™ื ื”ื ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื, ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœื”ืฉืชืœืฉืœื•ืช ืคืจื˜ื™ ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืชื•ืืžื™ื ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืงืจื‘ื ื•ืช.

ืชืžื” ื”ืจืžื‘"ืŸ: ืžื“ื•ืข ืจืื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืขืžื• ืขืฆื™ื ืžื‘ื™ืชื•[2], ื›ืžื• ืฉื ืืžืจ: "ื•ื™ื‘ืงืข ืขืฆื™ ืขื•ืœื” ื•ื™ืงื ื•ื™ืœืš ืืœ ื”ืžืงื•ื".

ืืœื ื™ืฉ ืœื•ืžืจ, ื›ื™ ืžืจื•ื‘ ื—ืฉืง ื•ื–ืจื™ื–ื•ืช ืœืงื™ื•ื ื”ืžืฆื•ื” ื—ืฉ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ืคืŸ ืœื ื™ืžืฆื ืขืฆื™ื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ื”ื•ื, ืœื›ืŸ ื‘ื—ืจ ืœื˜ื•ืœ ืขืžื• ืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื ืžื‘ื™ืช ื•ืœืฉืืช ืื•ืชื ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื™ืžื™ื, ื•ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ืฉืœื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื›ืœ ืขื™ื›ื•ื‘ ื•ืžื ื™ืขื” ืœืงื™ื•ื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™.

ื–ืืช ื•ืขื•ื“, ืืฃ ืฉืžืŸ ื”ืกืชื ื™ืžืฆื ืฉื ืขืฆื™ื, ืžื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ื—ืฉืฉ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• "ืœื“ื™ืŸ ืชื•ืจื”" (ืžืกื›ืช ืžื“ื•ืช ืค"ื‘ ืž"ื”) ืขืฅ ืฉื ืžืฆืื” ื‘ื• ืชื•ืœืขืช ืคืกื•ืœ ืœืงืจื‘ืŸ. ื•ืœืคื™ื›ืš "ื•ื™ื‘ืงืข ืขืฆื™ ืขื•ืœื”"[3], ื‘ื“ื•ืงื™ื ื•ืžื”ื•ื“ืจื™ื, ื•ืื•ืชื ื ืฉื ืขืžื• ืืœ ืžืงื•ื ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”.

ื”ื™ื•ืฆื ืœื ื• ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ืŸ ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืคื™ืง ืžื›ืœ ืคืจื˜ ื•ืคืจื˜ ืฉืœ ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ืฉื™ื”ื ืชื•ืื ืขื ื›ืœืœื™ ื”ืชื•ืจื”[4]. ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื™ืฆืืชื™ ืœื’ื ื™ ืœืœืงื•ื˜ ืฉื•ืฉื ื™ื ื•ื•ืจื“ื™ื, ืžืกืคืจื™ื ื ื“ื™ืจื™ื ื•ื’ื ืžืคื•ืจืกืžื™ื, ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืืช ื™ื•ืคื™ื” ืฉืœ "ืชื•ืจืช ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”"
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'ืื™ืŸ ืžื›ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื'

ื•ื™ืฉื›ื ืื‘ืจื”ื ื‘ื‘ืงืจ ื•ื™ื—ื‘ืฉ ืืช ื—ืžืจื• ื•ื™ืงื— ืืช ืฉื ื™ ื ืขืจื™ื• ืืชื• ื•ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ื ื•, ื•ื™ื‘ืงืข ืขืฆื™ ืขืœื” ื•ื™ืงื ื•ื™ืœืš ืืœ ื”ืžืงื•ื ืืฉืจ ืืžืจ ืœื• ืืœืงื™ื (ื›ื‘, ื’)

ื‘ืคืกื•ืงื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ื—ื•ื–ืจ ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื• ืคืขืžื™ื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ "ื•ื™ืœื›ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื™ื—ื“ื™ื•", ื‘ืคืกื•ืง ื•'ืื—ืจื™ ืชื™ืื•ืจ ื ืฉื™ืืช ื”ืขืฅ ื•ื”ืžืื›ืœืช, ื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ืคืกื•ืง ื—'ื‘ืขืช ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ืช ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื™ืฆื—ืง ืฉื”'ื™ืจืื” ืืช ื”ืฉื”.

"ืžืงืฉื™ื ื”ืขื•ืœื"ืคื•ืชื— ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืื‘"ื“ ืคืœืืฆืงืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•: ืœืžื” ื—ื•ื–ืจืช ื”ืชื•ืจื” ืคืขื ืื—ืจื™ ืคืขื ื‘ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื–ื”, ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืชื™ื‘ ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืคืจืง:

"ื‘ื”ืงื“ื ืžืืžืจื (ื™ื•ืžื ืœื– ืข"ื): ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืฉื”ื™ื• ืžื”ืœื›ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจืš, ื”ืจื‘ ื‘ืืžืฆืข, ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื•ืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ืฉืžืืœื•. ื”ืžื”ืœืš ื›ื ื’ื“ ืจื‘ื• โ€“ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืœืฆื™ื“ื•- ื”ืจื™ ื–ื” ื‘ื•ืจ, ื•ืคื™ืจืฉ ืจืฉ"ื™ (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ื“ืฃ ื›ื– ืข"ื‘) "ืžืจืื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ื ืฉื•ื•ื™ื".

ื•ื”ื ื”, ืฉื ื™ื ื• (ื‘ืจื›ื•ืช ื“ืฃ ืžื• ืข"ื‘): ืื™ืŸ ืžื›ื‘ื“ื™ื ืœื ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื•ืœื ื‘ื’ืฉืจื™ื, ื•ื”ืงืฉื• ืฉื ืชื•ืก' (ื“"ื” ืื™ืŸ) ื”ืจื™ ืœืคื™ ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืžื›ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื, ืžื“ื•ืข ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืงืคื™ื“ ืขืœ ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ื”ืœื™ื›ื” ืฉืœ ืชืœืžื™ื“ ืขื ืจื‘ื•, ื•ืื ื›ืŸ ืžื“ื•ืข ื™ืฉ ื›ืœ ื”ืžื”ืœืš ื›ื ื’ื“ ืจื‘ื• ื”ืจื™ ื–ื” ื‘ื•ืจ.

ื•ื™ืฉ ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื, ืฉื›ืœ ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉ"ืื™ืŸ ืžื›ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื"ืœื ื ืืžืจ ืืœื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืกื›ื ื”, ืฉืื– ืื™ืŸ ื—ื™ื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื”ืื“ื ืœื›ื‘ื“ ืืช ืžื™ ืฉืžื—ื•ื™ื™ื‘ ื‘ื›ื‘ื•ื“ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ. ื•ืขื•ื“ ื™ืฉ ืœื•ืžืจ, ืฉื“ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืฉืœ "ืื™ืŸ ืžื›ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื"ื”ื•ื ื“ื•ื•ืงื ื›ืฉื”ื•ืœืš ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืžืฆื•ื•ื”, ืฉืื– ื”ืœื™ื›ืชื• ื‘ื–ืจื™ื–ื•ืช ืœืงื™ื™ื ืžืฆื•ื•ื”.

ื•ื”ื ื”, ื™ื“ื•ืข ืžื” ืฉืžืกืจื• ื—ื–"ืœ (ื™ืœืงื•ื˜ ืฉืžืขื•ื ื™, ื•ื™ืจื ืคืก'ืฆื˜; ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ืจื‘ืชื™, ืขืœ ืืชืจ): "ื”ืœืš ื”ืฉื˜ืŸ ื•ื ืขืฉื” ืœืคื ื™ื”ื ื›ื ื”ืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ. ืืžืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืื ื™ื•ืจื“ื™ื ื”ื ืขืจื™ื ืžืชื™ื™ืจื ืื ื™ ืฉืžื ื™ื˜ื‘ืขื•. ื™ืจื“ ืขืžื“ื• ืœื”ื ื”ืžื™ื ืขื“ ืฆื•ื•ืืจื™ื”ื. ืชืœื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ืขื™ื ื™ื• ืœืฉืžื™ื, ืืžืจ: ืจื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ื! ื‘ืื• ืžื™ื ืขื“ ื ืคืฉ".

ืœืคื™ ื–ื” ื™ืฉ ืœื•ืžืจ, ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื• ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืกื›ื ื”, ื—ืœ ื“ื™ืŸ "ืื™ืŸ ืžื›ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื". ืœื›ืŸ ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืคืกื•ืง "ื•ื™ืœื›ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื™ื—ื“ื™ื•", ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฉื”ื™ื” ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžื”ืœืš ื›ื ื’ื“ ืื‘ื™ื• ื•ืœื ื›ื™ื‘ื“ื• ืœื™ืœืš ืœืคื ื™ื•.

ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ, ื›ืฉืฉืืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืืช ืื‘ืจื”ื "ื•ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื” ืœืขื•ืœื”", ื•ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื• "ืืœืงื™ื ื™ืจืื” ืœื• ื”ืฉื” ืœืขื•ืœื” ื‘ื ื™"ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ื–ื“ืจื– ื™ืฆื—ืง ื›ื“ื™ืŸ ื”ื”ื•ืœืš ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืžืฆื•ื”. ื•ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ืฉื•ื‘ย  ื ืืžืจ "ื•ื™ืœื›ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื™ื—ื“ื™ื•"ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื ื”ื•ื’ ื‘ื• ื›ื‘ื•ื“[5].

*

ื•ื™ืงื— ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ืขืฆื™ ื”ืขืœื” ื•ื™ืฉื ืขืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ื ื• ื•ื™ืงื— ื‘ื™ื“ื• ืืช ื”ืืฉ ื•ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช ื•ื™ืœื›ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื™ื—ื“ื™ื•[6] (ื›ื‘, ื–)

ืจื‘ื™ื ื“ื™ื™ืงื• ืฉื”ื ื—ืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžื•ื›ื™ื— ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืงื•ื“ืฉ, ืฉืื ื›ืŸ, ื”ืœื ืžืกืงื ืช ื”ืกื•ื’ื™ื ื‘ืคืกื—ื™ื ื“ืฃ ืกื• ืฉืืกื•ืจ ืœืชื—ื•ื‘ ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืข"ื’ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืฉื”ืจื™ ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืขืœ ื‘ื”ืงื“ืฉ[7], ื•ืœื›ืš ืžืขืœื” ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ื”ืขืฉื™ืœ ืื‘"ื“ ืงืจืืงื [ืฉื ื“? โ€“ ืงืจืืงื, ืชื›"ื“], ืจื‘ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืฉ"ืš ื•ื”ื‘"ืฉ, ืฉื™ืฉ ืงื•ืฉื™ ื‘ื ืฉื™ืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื ืขืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง; ืœื“ืขืชื• ืžื™ื•ืฉื‘ ื”ื“ืง ื”ื™ื˜ื™ื‘ ื”ื“ื•-ืฉื™ื— ืฉืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ื•ื™ืฆื—ืง. ื™ืฆื—ืง ืฉืืœื• 'ื”ื ื” ื”ืืฉ ื•ื”ืขืฆื™ื ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื” ืœืขื•ืœื”', ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ืชืžื™ื”ืชื• ื”ื•ื ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืฉืืœ ืžืž"ื , ืื ื”ื ื—ืช ืขืœื™ ืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื ืžื•ื›ื— ืฉืื ื™ ืœื ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ, ื"ื› "ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื”"? ืขื“ ื›ืืŸ ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจื‘, ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื• ืจื‘ื™ ืืœื™ืขื–ืจ ื˜ืจื™ืœื™ื ื’ืจ [ื›ื™ื”ืŸ ื›ืจื‘ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืขืจื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืจื‘ื™ื”] ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืขืœ ืžืฉืงืœ ื–ื” ืืช ืชืฉื•ื‘ืช ืื‘ืจื”ื ืฉ'ืืœื”ื™ื ื™ืจืื”', ื”ื•ืจืืช ืฉืขื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืืฆืœื™[8]. ื•ืื™ืœื• ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืืช ื”ื•ื•ืืจื˜: ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ืขื ื” ืœื• ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืžื˜ื‘ืข: ืืœื”ื™ื ื™ืจืื” ืœื• ื”ืฉื”, ื•ืื ืœืื• ืœืขื•ืœื” ื‘ื ื™, ืขื“ ื”ืฉืชื ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ืงื“ืฉืชื™ืš, ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืžื•ืชืจ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ืš[9].

ื”ืžืœื‘ื™"ื ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, ื•ื”ืกื™ืฃ ืคืจืคืจืช ื ืื” ืœืฆื™ื“ื•: ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ืงืฉื” ืœืื‘ื™ื•, ืื ื›ืš ื™ื•ืฆื ืฉืชืงื“ื™ืฉ ืื•ืชื™ ื‘ื™ื•"ื˜! ื•ื‘ื™ื•"ื˜ ื”ืจื™ ืืกื•ืจ ืœื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ? ื•ืขืœ ื›ืš ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื• ืื‘ืจื”ื, ื›ื™ ืฉื•ื ื” ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื‘ื—ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืงื‘ืขื• ืœื”ื ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืžื•ืชืจ ืœื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ. ืœื›ืŸ ืืžืจ ื‘ืœืฉื•ืŸ "ืืœื•ืงื™ื ื™ืจืื”", ื•ืื™ืŸ ืื ื™ ื”ืžืงื“ื™ืฉ.

ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืจืื–ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื•ื•ื™ื ืกืงื ื•ืงื˜ ื‘ืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ืžืงื•ื“ืฉ[10], ืืœื ื”ื•ื ืžื“ืงื“ืง:ืžื“ื•ืข ืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื ื”ื ื™ื— ืื‘ืจื”ื ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื•ืื™ืœื• ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช ื ื˜ืœ ื‘ื™ื“ื•?

ื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื‘ื”ื‘ืจืงื”: ื‘ื”ืงื“ื ืกื•ื’ื™ื™ืช ื”ื ื—ืช ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ (ืคืกื—ื™ื ื“ืฃ ืกื• ืจืข"ื‘) ืฉืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ื‘ื‘ืœื™ ื”ื•ื ืฉืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื•ืงื“ืฉ ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืืกื•ืจ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืขืœื™ื• ื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ, ืžืฉื•ื ืœืื• ื“'ืœื ืชืขื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ื‘ื›ื•ืจ'. ืžืื™ื“ืš ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ (ืฉื ืค"ื• ื”"ื, ื”ื•ื‘ื ื‘ืชื•ืก'ืขืœ ืืชืจ) ืฉืžื•ืชืจ, ื•ื˜ืขืžื: ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื›ืœ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืฉื”ื™ื ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืงื“ืฉื™ื ืื™ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”[11].

ื•ื”ื ื” ืœื”ืœื›ื” ืื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืœืขื™ื›ื•ื‘ื ืฉืชื”ื ื”ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื” ื‘ื›ืœื™ ืฉืจืช ื“ื•ื•ืงื[12], ืฉื•ื‘ ืื ื›ืŸ ืื™ืŸ ื–ื” "ืฆื•ืจืš ืงื“ืฉื™ื"ืœื™ืงื— ืžืื›ืœืช ืžื‘ื™ืชื•, ืœื›ืŸ ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ (ื™ืฆื—ืง)[13]. ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื ื”ื›ืฉื™ืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืฉื™ืคื• ื•ืขืฉื” ืžื”ื ื’ื–ื™ืจื™ื, ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉื ืืžืจ "ื•ื™ื‘ืงืข ืขืฆื™ ืขื•ืœื”", ื•ื”ืจื™ ื”ื "ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืงื“ื•ืฉืช ื”ื’ื•ืฃ"[14], ืœื›ืŸ ืžื•ืชืจ ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื ื™ื—ื ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ[15].

ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ืžืงื•ืจื™ ื”ืขืœื” ื”ืื“ืจ"ืช, ืœืคื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ื‘ืžืกื›ืช ื‘ื›ื•ืจื•ืช ื“ืฃ ื˜ ืข"ื‘ ืื™ืŸ ืื™ืกื•ืจ 'ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”'ื‘ืื“ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืงื“ื•ืฉ, ื›ืœ ืฉื›ืŸ ื‘ื™ืฆื—ืง ืื™ืŸ ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื•[16].

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"ื ืฉื™ืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื ื‘ื™ื•"ื˜"

ืื™ืชื ื‘ืžื“ืจืฉื™ื (ืคื“ืจ"ื ืค'ืœื‘[17]) ืฉื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›[18], ืœืคื™ ื–ื” ืชืžื”ืจื‘ื™ ืžืื™ืจ ืœื™ื™ื‘ื™ืฉ ื‘ืขืœ ื”ืžืœื‘ื™"ื: ืื™ืš ื ืฉื ื™ืฆื—ืง ืืช ื”ืืฉ ื•ื”ืขืฆื™ื, ื”ืœื ืขื‘ืจื• ืขืœ ืื™ืกื•ืจ ื”ื•ืฆืื”?

"ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื•ืžืจ"ืžืžืฉื™ืš ื”ืžืœื‘ื™"ื ื‘ื”ืงื“ื ืžืืžืจื (ืฉื‘ืช ื“ืฃ ื• ืข"ื‘) ืฉื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื™ืŸ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืฉืจื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืจื™ ื”ืžื“ื‘ืจ ื“ื™ื ื• ืจืง ื›ื›ืจืžืœื™ืช.

ืืš ืงืฉื”, ืžืคื ื™ ืžื” ืœื ืœืงื— ืขืžื• ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ, ื•ืืฃ ืœืกื•ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ื˜ืขื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืจื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ ื”ื•ื ื’ื–ื™ืจืช ืฉืžื ื™ื—ืชื•ืš ื–ืžื•ืจื”, ื”ืจื™ ื›ื‘ืจ ื—ื™ื“ืฉื• ื”ืคื•ืกืงื™ื (ืžื’"ื ืกื™'ืฉื›ื‘) ืฉื‘ืฉื ื™ื™ื ืื™ืŸ ืžืงื•ื ืœื—ืฉื•ืฉ, ื•ื›ื“ื™ืŸ ื”ืงื•ืจื ืœืื•ืจ ื”ื ืจ. ื•ืžื” ืขื•ื“ ืฉื”ืžื’"ื ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืฉื›ืœ ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืžืฆื•ื”, ื”ืจื™ ื’ื ื›ืืŸ ื”ื•ื™ ืžืงื•ื ืžืฆื•ื”.

ื•ืื™ืŸ ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ืžืงื•ื ืœื—ืฉื•ืฉ 'ืฉืžื ื™ืฆื ื—ื•ืฅ ืœืชื—ื•ื', ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื—ืฉื•ืฉ ืœืž"ื“ ืชื—ื•ืžื™ืŸ ื“ืื•ืจื™ื™ืชื (ืจืื” ื‘ื™ืฆื” ืœื•)[19], ืฉื”ืจื™ ื ืืžืจ 'ื•ื™ืจื ืืช ื”ืžืงื•ื ืžืจื—ื•ืง', ื•ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ืžื™ืœ ื›ืคื™ ืฉื“ืจืฉื• ืขืœ ื”ืคืกื•ืง (ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ื’, ื“) 'ืจืง ืจื—ื•ืง ื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื ื™ื›ื ื•ื‘ื™ื ื•' (ืจืื” ืจืฉ"ื™ ืœืฉืžื•ืช ืœื’, ื–). ืืžื ื ืœืคื™ ื”ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ ื”ืžื•ื‘ื ื‘ืจื"ืฉ ืฉื™ืฉ ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืฉื‘ื™ืชืช ื‘ื”ืžืชื•, ื ื™ื—ื.

ื•ื™ืฉ ืœืชืจืฅ, ืฉื–ื”ื• ืฉื›ืชื‘ื” ืชื•ืจื” 'ื•ื™ืœื›ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื™ื—ื“ื™ื•', ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฉืœื ืขืžื“ื• ืœืคื•ืฉ ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื, ื•ืื ื›ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ื ื—ื” ื•ืœื ืขืงื™ืจื”, ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ื–ืจืงื• ืžื™ื“ื ื›ืœืื—ืจ ื™ื“ื•, ื›ื”ืœื›ื”[20].

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ื•ื™ืืžืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืœ ื ืขืจื™ื• ืฉื‘ื•-ืœื›ื ืคื” ืขื ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ ื•ืื ื™ ื•ื”ื ืขืจ ื ืœื›ื” ืขื“ ื›ื” (ื›ื‘, ื”)

ื’ื ืืœ ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ ืฉื”ื™ื™ืช ื”ื ืขืจื™ื ื”ืกืžื™ืš ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื ืชืŸ ืื™ื™ื‘ืฉื™ืฅ ืœืžืืžืจื ืฉื—ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›. ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื—ืœ ืขืœื™ื”ื ืื™ืกื•ืจ ื™ืฆื™ืื” ื—ื•ืฅ ืœืชื—ื•ื: "ืื‘ืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ื•ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ืœื›ื• ืข"ื™ ืงืคื™ืฆืช ื”ื“ืจืš, ื›ืืžืจื (ื‘ืจ"ืจ ืžื’, ื’) ืคืกื™ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ื’'ืžื™ืœื™ืŸ, ื•ืคื™ืจืฉ ื”ืืจ"ื™ ื–"ืœ [ืฉืขืจ ืžืืžืจื™ ืจื–"ืœ, ืขืž'ืžื–] ืขืœ-ื™ื“ื™ ืงืคื™ืฆืช ื”ื“ืจืš, ืœื›ืŸ ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืœืœื›ืช ื’ื ื‘ื™ื•"ื˜"[21]. ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืฆ"ื‘, ืžื” ืœื™ ืฉืงืคืฆื” ืœื• ื”ื“ืจืš, ื”ืœื ื‘ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ืขื‘ืจ ืืช ืชื—ื•ืย  ื•ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื—ืช"ืก ื‘ืกืคืจื• ืชื•ืจืช ืžืฉื” ื ื™ื—ื ื”ืื™ ืชืžื™ื”, ื•ื›ื” ื›ืชื”: "ื "ืœ ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›, ืข"ื› ืื‘ืจื”ื ื•ื™ืฆื—ืง ืฉื ืฆื˜ื•ื• ืขืœ ื”ื”ืœื™ื›ื” ื”ื™ื” ื“ื•ื—ื” ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ื•ื”ืœืš ืืœืคื™ื ืžืžืงื•ื ื”ื”ื•ื, ื•ื”ื ืขืจื™ื ืœื ืฉืžืจื• ื›ืž"ืฉ ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื”ื ืคืฉ ืืฉืจ ืขืฉื• ื™ืฆืื• ืžื›ืœืœ ื‘"ื  ืœื”ืงืœ ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืฉื‘ืช, ื•ืื‘ืจื”ื ืžืฆื•ื•ื” ืขืœ ืฉื‘ื™ืชืช ื‘ื”ืžืชื•, ืข"ื› 'ืฉื‘ื• ืœื›ื ืคื” ืขื ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ'"[22].

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ื•ื™ืืžืจ ื”ื ื” ื”ืืฉ ื•ื”ืขืฆื™ื ื•ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื” ืœืขืœื”

ื”ืื ื”ื™ื” ื—ื•ื‘ืช ื‘ืงื•ืจ ืœื™ืฆื—ืง

ื”ืจื™ ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืงืจื‘ืŸ ืชืžื™ื“ ืฆืจื™ืš ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ (ืจืžื‘"ื ืชืžื™ื“ื™ืŸ ื•ืžื•ืกืคื™ืŸ ืค"ืย  ื”"ื˜), ื•ื”ื™ื• ืฉื”ืขืœื• ืฉืœื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืชืžื™ื“[23]. ื•ืืžื ื ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื ื™ื”ื ื‘ื• ืžื•ื, ื•ืืฆืœ ื‘ื ื™ ื ื— ืืฉืจ ืื™ืŸ ืคื•ืกืœ ื‘ื”ื ืžื•ื, ืจืง ืžื—ื•ืกืจ ืื‘ืจ ืคื•ืกืœ (ืข"ื– ื“ืฃ ื” ืข"ื‘), ื"ื› ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ.

ืืœื ืฉืœื’ื‘ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ืฉื™ืฆื ืžื›ืœืœ ื‘ื ื™ ื ื—, ื•ืœืคื™ ื”ื”ื•"ื ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืฉื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืื‘ื™ื• ืœืฉื—ื•ื˜ ืฉื”, ืื ื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ื˜ืขื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ. ื•ืื ืชืžืฆื ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื›ืฉืจ ื‘ืขืœ ืžื•ื, ื•ื›ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื (ืงื˜ื• ืข"ื‘) ืฉืขื“ ื”ืงืžืช ื”ืžืฉื›ืŸ ื›ืฉืจ ื‘ืขืœ ืžื•ื ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืื‘ืœ ื›ืืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื“ื™ืŸ ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื•ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžื–ื‘ื— ื‘ืขื™ ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ ื›ื“ื™ื ื™ ืžื–ื‘ื—. ืขื•ืžื“ ืขืœ ื›ืš ืจื‘ื™ ืžืื™ืจ ืฉืžื—ื” ื”ื›ื”ืŸ ืžื“ื•ื•ื™ื ืกืงโ€“ืคืืจื” ืฉืœ ืœื˜ื‘ื™ื”

ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื‘ืืจื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื ืคืœื: ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื™ ื’ื–ืจื™ ืขืฆื™ื ื•ืืฉ ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื ืืžืจ ืจืง ื‘ื”ืงืจื‘ ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื•ืœื ื‘ื”ืงืจื‘ ืขืœ ื‘ืžื” (ืžื ื—ื•ืช ื›ื‘). ื•ื–ื”ื• ื˜ืขื ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง "ื”ื ื” ื”ืืฉ ื•ื”ืขืฆื™ื"โ€“ ืื ื›ืŸ ืžื•ื›ื— ืฉืืชื” ื”ื•ืœืš ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืชืžื™ื“ ื‘ืžื–ื‘ื—. ื•ืื ื›ืŸ "ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื” ืœืขื•ืœื”"โ€“ ื”ืจื™ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืชืžื™ื“ ื‘ืžื–ื‘ื— ื˜ืขื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ, ื•ืื™ื” ื”ื•ื?

ืขืœย  ื›ืš ืขื ื”ื• ืื‘ืจื”ื: 'ืืœื•ืงื™ื ื™ืจืื” ื”ืฉื”', ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฉื”ื•ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืžื‘ื•ืงืจ[24].

ืืžืจ ื™ื—ื™ืืœ: ื”ืคืœื ื”ื•ื ืฉื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืžื™ืœื” ื‘ืžื™ืœื” ืœืกืคืจ ื”ื ืคืœื 'ืฆืคื ืช ืคืขื ื—'ืœืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืžื˜ืจืื ื™ [ืฆืคืช, ืฉื›"ื˜ โ€“ ืงื•ืฉื˜ื, ืฉืฆ"ื˜] -ืคืืจื” ืฉืœ ืฆืคืช, ื‘ื ื• ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื‘ื™"ื˜, ืค'ื•ื™ืจื ืจืืฉ ื“ืจื•ืฉ ื’[25]; ื•ืœืื—ืจื™ื• ืคื™ืจืฉ ื›ืŸ ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื‘ื•ืœืขืคื™ื” โ€“ ืคืืจื” ืฉืœ ื˜ื‘ืจื™ื” ืฉื“ืจืฉ ืืช ืฉืืœืชื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง 'ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื”'ืฉื”ืจื™ ื™ืฉ ืœื‘ื•ื“ืงื• ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื”, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืš ืขื ื” ืœื• ืื‘ืจื”ื : "ืืœื”ื™ื ื™ืจืื” ืœื• ื”ืฉื” โ€“ ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ื‘ืงื•ืจ ื“'ื™ืžื™ื, ืื ื™ืจืื ื™ ื”ืฉื™"ืช ืฉื” ืžื‘ื•ืงืจ ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืงืจื• โ€“ ื ืงืจื‘ื ื•, ื•ืื ืœื โ€“ ื“ื™ ื”ื™ื•ื ื‘ืขื•ืœืช ื‘ื ื™ ืชื—ืช ืขื•ืœืช ื”ืชืžื™ื“"[26], ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืฉื›ืŸ ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื‘ืคื™ื•ื˜ 'ืขืช ืฉืขืจื™ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ืœื”ืคืชื—'ืœืจ"ื”[27], ื ืืžืจ: "ืฉื—ืจ ื”ืฉื›ื™ื ืœื”ืœื•ืš ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ, ื•ืฉื ื™ ื ืขืจื™ื• ืžืžืชื™ ื”ืฉืงืจ, ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ื ื’ืขื• ืืœ ื—ืงืจ...ื”ืœื›ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื‘ืžืœืื›ื”. ื•ื™ืขื ื” ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœืื‘ื™ื• ื›ื›ื”, ืื‘ื™ ืจืื” ืืฉ ื•ืขืฆื™ ืžืขืจื›ื”, ืื™ื” ืื“ื•ื ื™ ืฉื” ืืฉืจ ื›ื”ืœื›ื”? ื”ืืช ื‘ื™ื•ื ื–ื” ื“ืชืš ืฉื•ื›ื—...", ื”ืจื™ ืœื ื• ืฉื”ืฉื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื‘ื•ืงืจ ื›ื“ืช[28].

ื™ื•ืฆื ืžืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœ ื”ื•ื ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืคืืœืื’'ื™, ื”ืžืขืœื” ืฉื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืฆื™ื•ื•ื” ืœื• ื”'ื™ื•ื ืœืคื ื™ ื™ืฆื™ืืชื• ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช, ื•ื”ื“ืจืš ืœืงื—ื• ื’'ื™ืžื™ื, ื”ืจื™ ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื“'ื™ืžื™ื ืœื‘ืงืจ, ื•ืื›ืŸ ื‘ืงืจื•[29].

*

ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ื ื“ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื—ืกืจื•ืŸ ืžื–ื‘ื—

ื‘ืกื•ื’ื™ื™ืช ืคืกื•ืœ ื”ืงืจื‘ ื”ืชืœื•ื™ ื‘ืžื–ื‘ื— ื ื—ืœืงื• ื‘ืžืกื›ืช ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื (ื“ืฃ ื ื˜ ืข"ื) ืจื‘ ื•ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ื—ื ืŸ ืื ื ืคื’ื ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ ื”ื‘ื”ืžื” ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ืฉื—ื˜ื•ื”. ื“ืขืช ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ื—ื ืŸ ืœืคืกื•ืœ, ื•ื ื™ืžื•ืงื• ืขืžื•: ื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืจืื•ื™ ืœืžื–ื‘ื— ื•ืื—"ื› ื ื“ื—ื”, ื”ืจื™ ื”ื•ื ื“ื—ื•ื™ ืžืŸ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืœืขื•ืœื. ื•ืื™ืœื• ื“ืขืช ืจื‘ ืœื”ื›ืฉื™ืจ, ื•ืœืฉื™ื˜ืชื•: ืื™ืŸ ืชื•ืจืช ื“ื™ื—ื•ื™ ื‘ืงื“ืฉื™ื ืืœื ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ื”ื“ื™ื—ื•ื™ ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื—ื™ื˜ืชื. ื™ื•ืฆื, ืฉืœื“ืขืช ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ื—ื ืŸ ื›ืœ ื”ืงื“ืฉื™ื ืฉื”ื•ืงื“ืฉื• ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื•ืื—"ื› ื ื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— โ€“ ืคืกื•ืœื™ื. ืžืขืœื”ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื‘ื•ืœืขืคื™ื” (ื”ืฉื ื™) ืžื”ืœืš ืžืคื•ืœืคืœ:

ื™ืฆื—ืง ืกื‘ืจ ื›ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ื—ื ืŸ ืฉื‘ืข"ื— ื ื“ื—ื™ืŸ, ื•ื“ื—ื•ื™ ืžืขื™ืงืจื ื”ื•ื™ ื“ื—ื•ื™, ืœื›ืŸ ืคื ื” ืœืื‘ืจื”ื ืขื ืชืžื™ื”ื”: ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื” "ืœื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื•"ืœืขื•ืœื” ืื—ืจ ื‘ื ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ืฉื”ืจื™ ืื ื™ ื ืคืกืœืชื™ ืฉื”ืจื™ ื”ืงื“ืฉืช ืื•ืชื™ ืœืคื ื™ ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—. ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื• ืื‘ืจื”ื: 'ืืœื”ื™ื ื™ืจืื” ืœื• ื”ืฉื”', ื‘ื›ื”ืื™ ื’ื•ื•ื ื ืฉื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืื™ื ื• ื‘ื ื•ื™ ืžื•ืชืจ ืžืฉื ื™ ื˜ืขืžื™ื. ื. ื“ื—ื•ื™ ืžืขื™ืงืจื ืื™ื ื• ื“ื—ื•ื™[30]. ื‘. ื”ืจื™ ื”ืจืžื‘"ื ืžื›ืจื™ืข ื›ื“ืขืช ืจื‘ ืฉื‘ืข"ื— ืื™ื ื ื ื“ื—ื™ื[31].

ืจื‘ื™ ืื”ืจืŸ ืฉืžื•ืืœ ืงื™ื™ื“ืื ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืขืœ 'ื‘ืจื›ืช ื”ื–ื‘ื—'[32]ื”ืขืœื” ื“ืจืš ื“ื•ืžื”: ื™ืฆื—ืง ื™ื“ืข ืฉื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ื• ืœืขื•ืœื” ืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—. ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ื—ื–"ืœ ืฉืื•ืชื• ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืชื• ืžื–ื‘ื— ืฉืขืœื™ื• ื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืื“ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืืช ืงืจื‘ื ื•, ื"ื› ื”ืจื™ ื ื™ืžื•ื— ืื—"ื› ืขื ืžื™ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืœ. ื›ืขืช ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ืจืื” ืฉืขืœ ื”ื”ืจ ืื™ืŸ ืฉื ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื•ื”ืจื™ ืื‘ื™ื• ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื• ืงื•ื“ื ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืžื–ื‘ื— ื—ื“ืฉ, ื”ืจื™ ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื• ืงื•ื“ื ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื›ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื‘ืงืจื (ืคืกื•ืง ื˜) ื•ื™ื‘ืŸ ืฉื ืžื–ื‘ื—, ืœื›ืŸ ืฉืืœืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžื•ื‘ื ืช ื›ืžื™ืŸ ื—ื•ืžืจ: "ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื”"? ื”ืจื™ ืื ื™ ืคืกื•ืœ ืœืงืจื‘ืŸ ืžื˜ืขื ื“ื—ื•ื™, ืœื›ืŸ ืขืœ ื›ื•ืจื—ืš ืขืœื™ืš ืœื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ ืฉื” ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื™. ืขืœ ืคื™ ื–ื” ืžื“ื•ื™ื™ืง ืชื’ื•ื‘ืช ืื‘ืจื”ื: ืืœืงื™ื ื™ืจืื” ื”ืฉื” ืœืขื•ืœื”, ืื›ืŸ ื›ื“ื‘ืจื™ืš, ืื‘ื ื” ืืช ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื•ืจืง ืื—"ื› ืืงื“ื™ืฉ ืฉื”, ื•ื‘ืื ืœืื• ืื– ืืงื“ื™ืฉ ืื•ืชืš, ืฉื”ืจื™ ื‘ืืžืช ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ืงื“ืฉืชื™ ืื•ืชืš[33].

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ืžื“ื•ืข ื”ืฆื ื™ืข ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช.

ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืœืš ืื‘ืจื”ื ืขื ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœืขื•ืงื“ื• ื ืืžืจ 'ื•ื™ืงื— ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ืขืฆื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื”... ื•ื™ื™ืงื— ื‘ื™ื“ื• ืืช ื”ืืฉ ื•ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช ื•ื™ืœื›ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื™ื—ื“ื™ื•'. ืืš ื›ืืฉืจ ืชืžื” ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœืคืฉืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ, ืฉืืœ 'ื”ื ื” ื”ืืฉ ื•ื”ืขืฆื™ื ื•ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื” ืœืขื•ืœื”'. ื•ืชืžื•ื”, ืžื“ื•ืข ืœื ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ื’ื ืืช ื”"ืžืื›ืœืช"[34]?

ืขืžื“ ืขืœ ื›ืš ืžื”ืจื™"ืœ ื“ื™ืกืงื™ืŸืื‘"ื“ ื‘ืจื™ืกืง, ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ืžื•ื‘ื ื‘ืคืชื—ื™ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” (ืกื™'ืœื• ืก"ืง ื˜"ื–) ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ื”ื‘ื”ืžื” ืื• ื”ืขื•ืฃ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืฉื•ื—ื˜ื™ื ืžืฉื•ื ืฆืขืจ ื‘ืขืœื™-ื—ื™ื™ื, ืื• ืžืฉื•ื ื—ืฉืฉ ืฆื™ืžื•ืง ื”ืจื™ืื”, ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื”.

ื•ืœืคื™ ื–ื” ื™ืฉ ืœื•ืžืจ, ืฉื‘ืื“ื ืืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืจ-ื“ืขืช ื•ื“ืื™ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื—ื•ืฉ ืฉื‘ืจืื•ืชื• ื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืฉืžื™ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื—ื˜ื•, ื™ืคื—ื“ ื•ื™ื‘ืขืช ื•ืžืชื•ืš ื›ืš ืชืฆื˜ืžืง ื”ืจื™ืื” ืฉืœื•.

ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื˜ืžื™ืŸ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช ื‘ืคื ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื ื™ื™ื˜ืจืฃ ื•ื™ื™ืคืกืœ ืžืงืจื‘ืŸ. ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœื ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืฉืืœืชื• ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช. ื•ืืกืžื›ืชื ืœื›ืš ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ[35]ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ืืžืจ ืœืื‘ื™ื•: 'ืืกืจื•ื ื™ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื•ื‘ืจื’ืœื™ ืฉื”ื ืคืฉ ื—ืฆื•ืคื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืœื ืชืจืื” ื”ืžืื›ืœืช ื•ืืคืกืœ ืžืŸ ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ', ื•ืคื™ืจืฉ ื”ืจื‘ ืžื‘ืจื™ืกืง ืฉื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืฉื”ืคื—ื“ ื™ื’ืจื•ื ืฉื™ืฆื˜ืžืง ื”ืจืื™ื” ื•ื™ื˜ืจืฃ[36] .

ื”ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืจื‘ื™ ืฆื‘ื™ ื”ื™ืจืฉ ืคืจื‘ืจ [ืกืœื‘ื•ื“ืงื”, ืชืจืœ"ื˜ โ€“ ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ืชืฉื›"ื–] ืžื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ ืจื‘ื ื™ ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืืกืžื›ืชื” ืžืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืกืœื™ื—ื” (ื™ื•ื ื”'ืœืขืฉื™"ืช): "ืžืื›ืœืช ืฉื ื•ื ื” ืžืจื•ื˜ื” ืœึธื˜ึถื‘ึทื—, ื ึฐื“ึธื ึธื”ึผ ื ืชืŸ ืžืœื”ื‘ืขื™ืชื• ื‘ึผืึถื‘ึทื—"[37].

ืื•ืœื ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ืฆ"ื‘ ืœืžื” ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœื ืฉืืœ ื’ื ืขืœ ื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ[38]!

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ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ื•ื™ืฉื ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ืขื™ื ื™ื•... ื•ื™ืืžืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืœ ื ืขืจื™ื• ืฉื‘ื• ืœื›ื ืคื” ืขื ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ ื•ืื ื™ ื•ื”ื ืขืจ ื ืœื›ื”...

ืจื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื–ืืžื•ืฉื˜ โ€“ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื•ื™ื›ื’ืœืจื ื˜ืจ ื—ื™ื“ืฉ ืฉืื™ืกื•ืจ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื” ื‘ืฉื‘ืช ืืกื•ืจ ื’ื ื‘ืฉื ื™ื, ืžื” ืฉืื™ืŸ-ื›ืŸ ืœืž"ื“ ืฉืืกื•ืจ ื’ื ื‘ื™ื•"ื˜, ื™ืฉ ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ืชื™ืจ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื” ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืžืฆื•ื”. ืœืื•ืจ ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉ ื–ื” ืžืžืฉื™ืš ืœื‘ืืจ ื‘ื˜ื•ื‘ ื˜ืขื ืœืžื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ื™ืจื“ ืžืŸ ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ื•ื”ืœืš ืจื’ืœื™.

ื‘ื”ืงื“ื ื”ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื (ื›ื— ืข"ื‘) ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ืงื™ื™ื ื’ื ื‘ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื“ืจื‘ื ืŸ, ื•ื”ืจื™ ืื ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ืฉื‘ืช, ื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœืจื›ื•ื‘ ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื™ืฆื—ืง, ืื•ืœื ืœืคื™ ื”ื“ืขื” ืฉื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›, ืžื“ื•ืงื“ืง ืฉื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ืœื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ืจื›ื™ื‘ื” ืขืœ ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ, ืืœื ื”ืœื›ื• ืจื’ืœื™, ื•ื”ืœื ืื™ืŸ ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•"ื˜, ื•ืœื ืžื”ื ื™ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื” ืฉื ื™ื[39].

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ื•ื™ืฉืœื— ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ื™ื“ื• ื•ื™ืงื— ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช ืœืฉื—ื˜ ืืช ื‘ื ื•.

ืคืกื•ืœ ืื•ื ืŸ

ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืฆืจื™ืš ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ, ืžื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืฉืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ื‘ืฉื—ื™ื˜ืช ื‘ื ื•, ื”ืœื ื‘ืจื’ืข ืฉื”ื•ื ืฉื•ื—ื˜ื• ื ืขืฉื” ืื•ื ืŸ, ื•ื”ื•ื ืคืกื•ืœ ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”.

ืงื•ืฉื™ื ื–ื• ื”ืงืฉื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” (?) ืจื‘ื™ ื“ื•ื“ ืกื’"ืœ ื‘ืขืœ 'ื”ื˜"ื–'. ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื‘ื”ืงื“ื ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืžื“ืจืฉ ืจื‘ื”.

ื‘ืžื“ืจืฉ (ื ื”, ื–) ืžืชื•ืืจ ื“ื™ืŸ ื•ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื ื™ื”ืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืขื ื›ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœ: "ืืžืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืงื‘"ื”: ืจื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ื! ื•ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื‘ืœื ื›ื”ืŸ, ืืžืจ ืœื• ื”ืงื‘"ื”: ื›ื‘ืจ ืžื ื™ืชื™ืš ืฉืชื”ื ื›ื”ืŸ, ื”ื”"ื“ (ืชื”ืœื™ื ืงื™, ื“) 'ืืชื” ื›ื”ืŸ ืœืขื•ืœื'.
ืขืžื“ ืจื‘ื™ื ื• ื”ื˜"ื– ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ืืœื•: ืžื” ื–ื• ื”ืงื•ืฉื™ื 'ื•ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืœืœื ื›ื”ืŸ', ื•ืœืžื” ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ื”ืŸ. ื•ืขื•ื“ ืงืฉื”, ืžืื™ 'ื›ื‘ืจ ืžื ื™ืชื™ืš ืฉืชื”ื ื›ื”ืŸ', ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืžื™ื ื” ืื•ืชื• ื”ืงื‘"ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ื”ืŸ.

ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืชื™ื‘ ื•ื’ื ืžืคืจืง, ืฉื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื•ื ื›ืš: 'ื•ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื‘ืœื ื›ื”ืŸ', ื”ืจื™ ืžื™ื“ ืขื ืžื™ืชืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื ืขืฉื” ืื•ื ืŸ ื•ืืกื•ืจ ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ (ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื ื˜ื– ืข"ื), ื•ืื ื›ืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืœืœื ื›ื”ืŸ. ื•ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ืชื”: ื›ื‘ืจ ืžื ื™ืชื™ืš ืฉืชื”ื ื›ื”ืŸ, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื›ื”ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื•ื›ื”ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžื•ืชืจ ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ื‘ืื ื™ื ื•ืช (ื™ื•ืžื ื™ื‘ ืข"ื‘). ื•ื”ืจืื™ื” ืฉื ืขืฉื” ืœื›ื”ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœื“ื™ื™ืงื, ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ (ืฉื): ืฉืืžืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื 'ื”ื ื ื™', ื”ื ื ื™ ืœื›ื”ื•ื ื” ื”ื ื ื™ ืœืžืœื›ื•ืช, ื–ื›ื” ืœื›ื”ื•ื ื” ื•ื–ื›ื” ืœืžืœื›ื•ืช. ื•ื“ื™ื™ืง ื”ื˜"ื– ืฉื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืœื›ื”ื•ื ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื”, ืžืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžืงืจื (ืชื”ืœื™ื ืงื™, ื“) 'ืืชื” ื›ื”ืŸ ืœืขื•ืœื', ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืืชื” ื›ื”ืŸ ืœืขื•ืœื ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืขืช ืื ื™ื ื•ืช[40].

ืœืื•ืจ ื”ืืžื•ืจ ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ื”ื˜ื™ื‘ ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžืงืจื[41]'ื•ื™ืืžืจ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื•, ื•ื™ืืžืจ ืื‘ื™, ื•ื™ืืžืจ ื”ื ื ื™ ื‘ื ื™', ืžื”ื• ื”ืืจื™ื›ื•ืช ื‘ืคืกื•ืง, ื•ืžื”ื• ื›ืคืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื?

ืื•ืœื ืœืคื™ ื”ืืžื•ืจ ืขื“ ื›ืืŸ, ื”ืจื™ ื”ื•ื ื›ืคืชื•ืจ ื•ืคืจื—: ื™ืฆื—ืง ื˜ื•ืขืŸ ืœืื‘ืจื”ื, ืฉื›ืœ ื”ื˜ืขื ื” ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื™ ื›ืœืคื™ืš ื”ื™ื, ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืืชื” ืื‘ื™, ื•ืื ืชืฉื—ื˜ ืื•ืชื™ ืชื”ื 'ืื•ื ืŸ', ืฉื”ืจื™ ืื ื™ ืจื•ืื” "ื”ืืฉ ื•ื”ืขืฆื™ื", ืื ื›ืŸ ื‘ื“ืขืชืš ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืงืจื‘ืŸ. ืืš ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉ"ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื” ืœืขื•ืœื”", ืฉื” ืœืขื•ืœื” ืื™ืŸ, ื”ืจื™ ืฉื‘ื“ืขืชืš ืฉืื ื™ ืื”ื™ื” ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ, ืื•ืœื ืื™ืš ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืขืœื•ืชื™ ืœืงืจื‘ืŸ ื›ืฉืชื™ื›ืฃ ื‘ืขืช ื”ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื” ืืชื” ื ืขืฉื” 'ืื•ื ืŸ'[42].

ื‘ืŸ ื“ื•ืจื• -ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ืœื™ ื’ื•ืžื‘ื™ื ืจ ืžืงืืœื™ืฉื‘ืขืœ 'ืžื’ืŸ ืื‘ืจื”ื'ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื•. ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ (ืคืจืงื™ ื“ืจ"ื, ืค'ืœื) ืฉื“ื™ืžื” ืืช ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ืœื›ื”"ื’ ืฉื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืžื ื—ื” ื•ื ืกื›ื™ื, ื›ืชื‘: ื•ื”ื ื“ืืžืจ ื›ื”ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืงืฉื” ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืงืจื™ื‘ ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื™ื”ื™ื” ืื•ื ืŸ, ื•ื"ื› ื™ืืกืจ ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืื—"ื› ืžื ื—ื” ื•ื ืกื›ื™ื. ืœื–ื” ืืžืจ 'ื›ื›ื”ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ', ืฉื”ืจื™ ืงื™ื™"ืœ ื›ื”ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžืงืจื™ื‘ ืื•ื ืŸ"[43].

ืœื’ืื•ืŸ ื”ืจืื’ื™ืฆ'ื•ื‘ืขืจ ื™ืฉ ืžื”ืœืš ื ืคืœื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ.

ืœื“ืขืชื• (ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ืคืกื™ืงืชื) ืœืื‘ืจื”ื ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื›ื”ืŸ ื”ื“ื™ื•ื˜, ื•ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื”ืื™ืš ื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืจืื•ื™ ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”? ื”ืœื ื’ื ื‘ื”ืงืจื‘ื” ื‘ื‘ืžื” ืžืกืชืคืง ื”ื’ืžืจื (ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื ื˜ื– ืข"ื) ื”ืื ืžื•ืชืจืช ื‘ืื•ื ืŸ.

ืืœื ืขืœ ืคื™ ืžื” ืฉืฉื ื™ื ื• ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื“ืฃ ื™ื’: ื”ื™ื” ืขื•ืžื“ ื•ืžืงืจื™ื‘ ื•ืฉืžืข ืฉืžืช ืœื• ืžืช, ืžื ื™ื— ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื•ื™ื•ืฆื, ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื”. ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ืกื™ ืื•ืžืจ, ื™ื’ืžื•ืจ. ืคื™ืจืฉ ืจืฉ"ื™: ืฉื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื›ื”ืŸ ื”ื“ื™ื•ื˜[44]. ื•ื”ื ื” ื”ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื” ืื™ื ื” "ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”"ื•ืžืžื™ืœื ืื™ื ื” "ื”ืชื—ืœื”". ืœื›ืŸ ื“ืงื“ืง ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœืขืจื•ืš ืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื, ืฉื–ื”ื• "ืกื™ื“ื•ืจ ื’ื–ืจื™ ื”ืžืขืจื›ื”", ืฉื”ื™ื "ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”"ื•ืืกื•ืจื” ืœื–ืจ. ื•ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื›ืŸ โ€“ "ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืชื—ื™ืœ, ื’ื•ืžืจ".

ืžื”ืœืš ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ื“ืจืš ืœื• ืจื‘ื™ ื“ื•ื“ ืœื•ืจื™ื ืžื‘ื™ื—ื•ื‘, ืœื“ืขืชื• ืื™ื ื• ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื—ื™ืœ ื“ื™ื ื™ ืื ื™ื ื•ืช ืขืœ ืžื™ืชื” ืฉื ืขืฉืชื” ืข"ื™ ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ ื”ืฉื™"ืช. ื”ื•ื ืžืฉื™ื’ ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื–ื™ืช ืจืขื ืŸ (ืฉืฆื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืœืขื™ืœ): "ื•ืื™ื ื• ื ื›ื•ืŸ... ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ, ืื ืฉื™ื™ืš ื‘ื›ืืŸ ืื ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ืฆ"ืข, ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืื‘ื™ืœื•ืช ื•ื“ืื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื›ืืŸ, ื›ืžื• ื‘ื”ืจื•ื’ื™ ืกื ื”ื“ืจื™ืŸ (ืžื• ืข"ื‘) ืฉืื™ืŸ ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื”ื ืžืชืื‘ืœื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื, ื›ืœ ืฉื›ืŸ ื›ืืŸ ืฉืฆื•ื”ื• ื”'ืขืœ ื–ื”". ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืžืขืœื” ืฉื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉ ื–ื” ืื™ื ื• ืžื•ืกื›ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื.

ืจื“"ืœ ืžืกื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ืขืจื” ืข"ื“ ื”ื–ื™ืช ืจืขื ืŸ ืฉื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื”ื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื“ื™ืŸ ื›ื”"ื’ ืœื›ืŸ ืœื ื—ืœ ืขืœื™ื• ื“ื™ื ื™ ืื ื™ื ื•ืช; ืžื•ืกื™ืฃ ืขืœื™ื• ืจื“"ืœ, ืœืคื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ืชื•ืกื‘ืจ ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืฉื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›, ืฉืจืง ื›ื”"ื’ ืขื•ื‘ื“ ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ื™ื•ื; ืื•ืœื ืžืกื™ื™ื ืฉ"ื‘ืืžืช ืื™ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจ ื–ื” ืžื•ืกื›ื ืฉื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›, ื›ื™ ื‘ื•ื™ืง"ืจ ืžืฉืžืข ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืชืฉืจื™ ื•ื‘ืฉืžื•"ืจ ืืžืจื• ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืคืกื—".[45]

ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืคืืœืื’'ื™ ื™ื™ืฉื‘ ืืช ื”ืงื•ืฉื™ื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ: ื–ื™ืœ ื‘ืชืจ ื˜ืขืžื, ื”ืœื ื˜ืขื ืคื˜ื•ืจ ืื•ื ืŸ ืžืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื•ื, ืฉืžื•ื˜ืœ ืขืœื™ื• ืœืงื•ื‘ืจื•, ื•ืื™ืœื• ื›ืืŸ ืžื•ื˜ืœ ืขืœื™ื• ื’ืžืจ ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื•, ื•ื’ื™ืžื•ืจ ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื™ื ื”ืฉืจื™ืคื”, ื•ื”ืฉืจืคื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืงื‘ื•ืจื”[46]

ืืžืจ ื™ื—ื™ืืœ: ืชืžื™ื”ื ื™ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ื”ื ื™ ืืฉืœื™ ืจื‘ืจื‘ื ื•ื‘ืคืจื˜ ืขืœ ื”ืจื“"ืœ, ื”ืœื ื‘ื—ื’ ื•ื™ื•ื”"ื› ืœื ื—ืœื™ื ื“ื™ื ื™ ืื ื™ื ื•ืช (ื™ื•"ื“ ืฉืžื, ื), ื•ื–ื”ื• ื”ื˜ืขื ืฉื›ื”"ื’ ืžื•ืชืจ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ืื ื™ื ื•ืช, ืฉื”ืจื™ "ื›ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ื›ืจื’ืœ ืืฆืœื•", ื•ืข"ื› ื ืคืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืงื•ืฉื™.

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'ื•ื™ืืžืจ ืืœ ืชืฉืœื— ื™ื“ืš ืืœ ื”ื ืขืจ ื•ืืœ ืชืขืฉ ืœื• ืžืื•ืžื”' (ื›ื‘, ื™ื‘) ื—ื›ืžื™ื ื• (ื‘"ืจ ื ื•) ื“ืจืฉื• ืืช ื›ืคืœ ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ: ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ืจืฆื” ืœื›ืœ ื”ืคื—ื•ืช ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืžืžื ื• ื›ืžื” ื˜ื™ืคื•ืช ื“ื, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฆื™ื•ื•ื” ืœื• ื”ืงื‘"ื” 'ืืœ ืชืขืฉ ืœื• ืžืื•ืžื”'.
ื”ื—ืช"ืก ืขื•ืžื“ ืขืœ ื›ืš ืœืžื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ืขืฉื” ื—ื‘ื•ืจื” ืขืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื•ื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืงืฆืช ื“ื, ื›ืŸ ืžื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืœืžื“ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœืฉื—ื•ื˜ ืืช ื”ืื™ืœ ืœืขื•ืœื”?

ื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ื›ืš: "ื ืจืื” ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ืœื ืจืฆื” ืœืงื“ืฉ ื”ืžืงื•ื ืœื‘ื™ืช ืขื•ืœืžื™ื ืขื“ ืฉื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ื‘ื• ืฉื•ื ืงืจื‘ืŸ, ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื ืชืงื“ืฉ ื”ืžืงื•ื ื•ืื™ื ื• ืžืงืจื™ื‘ ืงืจื‘ืŸ, ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืœืื• 'ื•ืœื ื™ืจืื• ืคื ื™ ืจื™ืงื', ืœื›ืŸ ืจืฆื” ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืงืฆืช ื—ื‘ื•ืจื” ื‘ื™ืฆื—ืง ื•ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืžืžื ื• ืงืฆืช ื“ื ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื ืชื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืื” ืจื™ืงื ื™ืช. ื•ื›ืฉืืžืจ ืœื• ื”ืงื‘"ื” 'ืืœ ืชืขืฉ ืœื• ืžืื•ืžื”'ื”ืจืื” ืœื• ืื™ืœ ื•ื”ืงืจื™ื‘ื• ืขื•ืœืช ืจืื™ื”, ืื– ืืžืจ ืืฉืจ ื™ืืžืจ ื”ื™ื•ื 'ื‘ื”ืจ ื”'ื™ืจืื”'"[47]. ื‘ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื” ืงื“ืžื• ืจื‘ื™ ื“ื•ื“ ืคืืจื“ื• [ืชืข"ื—-ืชืงื "ื‘]: "ืืœ ืชืฉืœื—... ื•ื”ื•ื™ื ืœื™ื” ื‘ื™ืื” ืจื™ืงื™ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื™ื•ื“ืข ืฉืฉื ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื”"ืž, ื”ืœื›ืš ืื•ืฆื™ื ืžืžื ื• ืžืขื˜ ื“ื, ืฉืžืงืฆืช ื ืคืฉ ื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืคืฉ"[48].

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"ืขื•ืœื” ืฉืขืœืชื” ื—ื™ื” ืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— โ€“ ืชืจื“"

ืฉื ื™ื ื• ื‘ืžืฉื ื” (ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื ืคื“ ืข"ื): "ืขื•ืœื” [ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื›ืœ ืงืจื‘ืŸ] ืฉืขืœืชื” ื—ื™ื” ืœืจืืฉ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืชืจื“", ืžื‘ืืจืช ื”ื’ืžืจื ืฉืฉ ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื“ื” ืžืฉื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉื—ื•ื˜, ื•ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืฉืœืžื” ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื” ืœืžื˜ื”, ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืืช ื ืชื—ื™ื” ืœื”ืงื˜ืจื”. ืื ื›ืŸ ืชืžื•ื”, ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืขืœื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื‘ืขื•ื“ื• ื—ื™?

ืœืขื™ื™ืŸย  ืฉืžืŸ ื”ืžืื•ืจ ืค'ื™ืชืจื•,ย  ืฉื™ืจืช ืฉืžื•ืืœ, ืกื™'ืกื‘

ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื‘"ืจ ืขืžืจื ื“ื™ื•ื•ืืŸ -ืžื—ื›ืžื™ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื[49], ื›ื•ืชื‘ ืฉื›ืœ ื™ืžื™ื• ื”ืชืงืฉื” ื‘ืฉืืœื” ื–ื•. ื•ืื ืชืืžืจ ืฉื”ืขืœืืชื• ื”ื™ืชื” ืขืœ ืคื™ ืืžื™ืจืช ื”ืฉื™"ืช, ื”ืจื™ ืœื ืžืฆื™ื ื• ืฉื›ืš ืืžืจ ืœื• ื”', ื•ื”ื™ื”ย  ืœื• ืœืื‘ืจื”ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ืŸ ืขื•ืœื” ืœืžื˜ื” ื•ืœื”ืขืœื•ืชื• ืื—"ื› ื›ืฉืืจ ืขื•ืœื•ืช. ื•ืœื ืžืฆื ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืขื ื™ืŸ[50]. ืื•ืœื ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉืจื‘ื™ื ื•ื’ื ืฉืœืžื™ื ื ืฉืื• ื•ื ืชื ื• ื‘ืงื•ืฉื™ื ื–ื•.

ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื“ืŸ ื‘ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืžื˜ืจืื ื™ ืฉื–ื›ื” ืœื ืฉืง ืืช ื™ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื‘"ื™ ื•ืœื”ืชื‘ืจืš ืžืžื ื•[51], ื‘ื“ืจืฉื•ืชื™ื• ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜ ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ืชืงื“ืฉ ืจืง ืขื ื”ืขืœืชื• ืข"ื’ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื•ืงื“ื•ืฉื” ื–ื• ืงื™ื“ืฉื” ืื•ืชื• ืœืชืžื™ื“. ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜ ืžื“ื™ื™ืง ืืช ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžืงืจื: 'ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืฉื ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ื”ืจื™ื', ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืœื•ืžืจ ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ื”ืจื™ื, ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืฉื, ืืœื ื“ื™ื™ืง ืื‘ืจื”ื ืฉืžื˜ืจืช ืขืœื™ื™ืชื• ื”ื™ื ืœืงื“ืฉื•: "ื•ืœื›ืš ืœื ืฉื—ื˜ื• ืœืžื˜ื” ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืื™ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ื“ื™ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืœื”". ื•ืืคืฉืจ, ืžืžืฉื™ืš ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜ ื•ืžื—ื“ืฉ: "ืฉืœื ื ืืžืจ ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื” ืœืžื˜ื” ืืœื ื‘ืขื–ืจื” ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืงื•ื“ืฉ ืื• ื‘ืคื ื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ืงืœืขื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ืžืงื•ื ืฉืœื ื ืชืงื“ืฉ, ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ืขืœื•ืชื• ืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืฉื ืชืงื“ืฉ ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื•, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืš ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืš ื”ืขืœืชื• ืงื“ืฉืชื•, ื•ืœื ืฆื•ื” ื”ืงื‘"ื” ืœืฉื•ื—ื˜ื• ืืœื ืœื”ืขืœื•ืชื• ื•ืœืงื“ืฉื•"[52]

ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉื”ืขืœื” ืงื•ืฉื™ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื‘ื•ืœืขืคื™ื” (ื”ืžื•ืกืžืš)[53], ื ื›ื“ื• ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื‘ื•ืœืขืคื™ื[?- ื˜ื‘ืจื™ื”, ืชืง"ื“][54]ื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ืงื•ืฉื™ ืžืฉืžื•[55], ื•ืžื ืกื” ืœื™ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื‘ื›ืžื” ืื ืคื™ืŸ: ื‘ืฉื [ืจื‘ื•[56]] ืจื‘ื™ ืžืฉื” ื’ืœืื ื˜ื™ (ื”ืฉื ื™) [ืฆืคืช, ืฉ"ืค โ€“ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืชืž"ื˜] ื”ื•ื ืžื‘ื™ื: ืžืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื˜ืขื ืœืคืกื•ืœ ื”ืขืœืืช ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื—ื™ ืžืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื”ื•ื 'ืฉืžื ื™ืจื‘ื™ืฅ ื’ืœืœื™ื', "ืœื ืฉื™ื™ืš ื”ืื™ ื˜ืขืžื ื‘ื™ืฆื—ืง ืฉื”ืœื›ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื™ื—ื“ื™ื• ื”ื‘ืŸ ืœื”ื–ื‘ื— ื•ื”ืื‘ ืœื–ื‘ื•ื—"[57]. ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื”ื•ื ื›ื ืจืื” ื›ืš, ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉื˜ื‘ืขื• ืฉืœ ืื“ื ืœื”ื–ื“ืขื–ืข ืžืคื—ื“ ื”ืจื™ื’ื” ื•ืขืœื•ืœ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืฆื•ืื”[58], ืื‘ืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืฉื”ืœืš ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืœื”ื™ืฉื—ื˜, ืื™ืŸ ืžืงื•ื ืœื—ืฉื•ืฉ. ืชื™ืจื•ืฅ ื ื•ืกืฃ ื”ืขืœื” ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืžื’"ืŸ: "ืขืœ ืคื™ ืžืืžืจื ื‘ืžื“ืจืฉ ืฉื”ืฉื˜ืŸ ืจืฆื” ืœื”ื˜ื™ืœ ื‘ื• ืžื•ื ื•ืœืคื•ืกืœื•, ืœื›ืŸ ืจื™ืžื” ืื•ืชื• ืื‘ืจื”ื ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื™ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ื’ื™ืข ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื”, ื•ืžื•ื˜ื‘ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืื™ืกื•ืจ ื–ื•ื˜ื ืฉืœื ื™ืคืกืœ ืžื›ืœ ื•ื›ืœ"[59].

ื•ืจื—"ื ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื“ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืœื ื ืืžืจ ืืœื ืจืง ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืงื“ืฉ, ืฉื‘ื• "ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—"ื”ื•ื ืœืขื™ื›ื•ื‘ื, ืื•ืœื ื‘'ื‘ืžื”'ืื™ืŸ ื“ื™ืŸ ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ืื™ืŸ ื“ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ืžืขื›ื‘. ื•ืืžื ื ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืขื•ืฉื™ื 'ืžื–ื‘ื—'ื–ื”ื• ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื”ื ืชืฉืžื™ืฉื• ื ื—, ื›ืžื• ืฉืืžืจื• (ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื ืงื—), ืื• ืฉื›ืืŸ ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ื•ืจืืช ืฉืขื” ืฉื™ื‘ื ื” ืžื–ื‘ื— ื‘ื‘ืžื”.

ืœืคื™ ื–ื” ื‘ืืžืช ืื™ืŸ ื›ืœ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื•ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ "ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—"ืœ"ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ืงืจืงืข", ื›ื™ ื›ืœ ื‘ื ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืื™ื ื• ืืœื ืจืง ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื”ื ืชืฉืžื™ืฉื• ื ื—, ื•ืื™ืŸ ื›ืœ ืžื ื™ืขื” ืœื”ืขืœื•ืชื• ืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื—ื™.

ื•ืืฃ ืื ื ืืžืจ ืฉืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื ื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ืื ื›ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉื’ื ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื™ืชื” ื”ืขืœืชื• ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื—ื™[60].

ืจื‘ื™ ืฉืœืžื” ืืœื™ืขื–ืจ ืืœืคืื ื“ืจื™ ืฉื›ื™ื”ืŸ ื›ื—ื›ื-ื‘ืืฉื™ ื‘ื“ืžืฉืง ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ืชืจื "ื“-ืชืจืก"ื—[61], ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ ืืช ืงื•ืฉื™ื™ืช ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื“ื™ื•ื•ืืŸ: ื ืจืื” ืฉืœื ืงืฉื”, ืžืœื‘ื“ ืžื” ืฉืงื™ื™"ืœ ื›ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ืกื™ ืฉื˜ืขืžื• ืขืžื•, ืฉืฉื—ื˜ื” ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื™ืคืฉื™ื˜, ืฉื ืืžืจ 'ื•ื–ื‘ื—ืช ืขืœื™ื• ืืช ืขื•ืœื•ืชื™ืš'ืžืœืžื“ ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื›ืฉืจ ืœืฉื—ื™ื˜ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื” (ืฉื, ื ื— ืข"ื), ื•ื“ื•ืงื ืœืื—ืจ ืžืชืŸ ืชื•ืจื” ืฉืงื‘ืข ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ ืœืขื•ืœื” โ€“ ืฆืคื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืฉืืžืจื• ืœื›ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื™ืฉื—ื•ื˜ ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ.

ื•ืขื•ื“, ื›ื™ ื›ืฉืืžืจ ืœื• ื”ืงื‘"ื” 'ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืฉื ืœืขื•ืœื” ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ืจื™ื ืืฉืจ ืื•ืžืจ ืืœื™ืš'ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืฉื™ืขืœื”ื• ื•ื™ืฉื—ื˜ื”ื• ืฉื. ื•ื›ืŸ ืžื•ื›ื— ืžื—ื–"ืœ (ื‘"ืจ ื ื•, ื™ื‘) ืฉื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืชืžื”: ืืžืจืช 'ืงื— ื ื ืืช ื‘ื ืš', ื•ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืืชื” ืื•ืžืจ ืœื™ 'ืืœ ืชืฉืœื— ื™ื“ืš ืืœ ื”ื ืขืจ'. ืืžืจ ืœื• ื”ืงื‘"ื”, ื›ืฉืืžืจืชื™ ืœืš 'ืงื— ื ื'ืœื ืืžืจืชื™ 'ืฉื—ื˜ื”ื•'ืืœื 'ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื•', ืœืฉื ื—ื™ื‘ื” ืืžืจืชื™ ืœืš, ืืกื™ืงืชื™ื” ื•ืงื™ื™ืžืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื•ืขืชื” ืื—ืชื™ื ื™ื” ื•ื›ื•'[62].

ืœืคื™ ื–ื”, ืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื‘ืจื”ื ื‘ืžืืžืจ ื”''ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืœื™'โ€“ ืฉื™ืขืœื” ืื•ืชื• ืœืจืืฉ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื™ืคื” ื›ื™ื•ืŸ, ื•ืจืง ืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื’ืย  ื™ืฉื—ื˜ื”ื•, ืขืœ ื–ื” ืืžืจ ืœื• ืฉืื™ื ื• ื ื›ื•ืŸ. ืืช ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื• ื”ืฉื ื™, ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืจื‘ ืืœืคืื ื“ืจื™ ืœื‘ืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ืชื• โ€“ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ืจื›ื”, ืžื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ ืจื‘ื ื™ ืืจ"ืฅ, ื•ืฉืขืœ ื“ืจืฉื•ืชื™ื• ื‘ืกืคืจื• 'ื‘ื™ืจืš ื™ืฆื—ืง'ื”ืขื™ื“ -ื‘ืŸ ื“ื•ืจื•- ื”ื—ื™ื“"ื: ืฉื”ื "ื ื—ืžื“ื™ื"[63].

ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ื”ืขืœื” ื”ื—ืช"ืก. ื‘ื“ืจืฉืชื• ืœืคืจืฉืช ื‘ื ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืงืฆ"ื“ ื—ื™ื“ืฉ ื”ื—ืช"ืก ืฉืฉืื ื™ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขื•ืœื” ืฉืคื•ืฉื˜ื™ื ืžืžื ื” ืืช ืขื•ืจื” ื˜ืจื ื”ื”ืงื˜ืจื” ืžืฉื"ื› ืขื•ืจ ื”ืื“ื ื›ื‘ืฉืจื• ื•ืจืฆื” ืœื”ืงื˜ื™ืจื• ื›ื•ืœื•, ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื ืขืงื“ ืข"ื’ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื•ื”ื™ื ื›ื•ืœื• ืงื•ื“ืฉ[64]. ื”ื ืฆื™"ื‘ ืžื•ื•ืืœื•ื–'ื™ืŸ, ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื—ืช"ืก, ืœื“ื™ื“ื™ื”: ื”ื˜ืขื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืžืขืœื™ื ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื—ื™: "ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืขื•ืจ ื”ื‘ื”ืžื” ืงืจื‘, ืžื”-ืฉืื™ืŸ-ื›ืŸ ืขื•ืจ ื”ืื“ื ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืฉืจ ืžืžืฉ, ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื”ืขืœื•ืชื• ื—ื™"[65].

ื•ืžืŸ ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ืœืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ื‘'ื‘ืžื“ื‘ืจ ืจื‘ื”' (ื™ื–, ื‘) ืฉื ืžืกื•ืคืจ ื”ืฉืชืœืฉืœื•ืช ืžืขืฉื” ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”, ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ื ื ืžืกืจ ื’ื ืขืœ ื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื”ืคืฉื™ื˜ ืืช ืขื•ืจ ื‘ื ื•: "ืืžืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืจื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ื.. ื ื˜ืœ ื”ืื™ืœ ื•ื”ืคืฉื™ื˜ื•, ื•ืืžืจ ื›ืš: ืชื”ื ืจื•ืื” ื›ืื™ืœื• ืขื•ืจื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ืคืฉื˜ืชื™ ืœืคื ื™ืš"[66].

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ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ืžืงื•ื ืฉื—ื™ื˜ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื” โ€“ ื‘ืฆื“ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืื• ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ื•

ื”ืงืฉื” ื”ืฉืค"ื: ื”ืจื™ ืžืงื•ื ืฉื—ื™ื˜ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืงื“ืฉ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืฆื“ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื•ืœื ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—. ื•ื"ื›, ื›ืฉื”ืขืœื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœืขื•ืœื” ื›ืคื™ ืฉื ืฆื˜ื•ื•ื”: ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืฉื ืœืขื•ืœื”, ืœืžื” ื”ืขืœื•ื”ื•: ืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉื ืืžืจ: ื•ื™ืฉื ืื•ืชื• ืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืžืžืขืœ ืœืขืฆื™ื.

ืขืœ ื”ืคืกื•ืง "ื•ืฉื—ื˜ ืื•ืชื• ืขืœ ื™ืจืš ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืฆืคื•ื ื” ืœืคื ื™ ื”'" (ื•ื™ืงืจื ื, ื™ื) ื“ืจืฉื• ื—ื–"ืœ (ื•ื™ืง"ืจ ื, ื”): ืฉื‘ืขืช ืฉื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžืงืจื™ื‘ื™ื ืชืžื™ื“ ืข"ื’ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื•ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืงืจื ื”ื–ื” ื–ื•ื›ืจ ื”ืงื‘"ื” ืขืงื™ื“ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง. ื•ื‘ืชื ื“ื‘"ื ืžื•ื‘ื: ื–ื•ื›ืจ ืื™ืœื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง. ื•ืœื›ืื•ืจื”, ืžื” ืขื ื™ืŸ "ืื™ืœื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง"ืœ"ืฆืคื•ืŸ"ื“ื•ื•ืงื. ื•ืขื•ื“, ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื•ืžืจ "ืื™ืœื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง"ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืœื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ "ืขืงื™ื“ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง"ื’ื•ืคื.

ืื‘"ื“ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื -ืจื‘ื™ ืฆื‘ื™ ืคืกื— ืคืจื ืง ืžื•ืกืจ ืฉืฉืžืข ืžืคื™ ืžื”ืจื™"ืœ ื“ื™ืกืงื™ืŸ ืฉื›ื” ืคื™ืจืฉ:

ืื›ืŸ ื‘ื–ืžื ื™ื ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื ื”ื™ื” ื ื”ื•ื’ ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืข"ื’ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืžืžืฉ ื•ืœื ื‘ืฆื™ื“ื•[67], ื•ื›ืคื™ ืฉื ืชืคืจืฉ ื‘ื›ืชื•ื‘ ื‘ืขืงื“ื”. ืืœื ื‘ืขืช ืฉื”ืจืื”ื• ืœืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ื”ืื™ืœ ื”ืžื•ื›ืŸ ื•ืจืื•ื™ ืœืงืจื‘ืŸ ืชื—ืช ื‘ื ื•, ื”ื™ื” ืขืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื”ืชื™ืจ ืขืงื™ื“ืช ื‘ื ื• ื•ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื“ื• ืžืข"ื’ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื•ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืชื—ืชื™ื• ืืช ื”ืื™ืœ. ืื•ืœื ืœื ื›ืŸ ื ื”ื’ ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื—ืฉืฉ ื•ื™ืจื ืฉืžื ื™ื”ื ืื™ื–ื” ืคื’ื ื•ืคืกื•ืœ ื‘ื”ืงืจื‘ืช ื”ืื™ืœ, ื•ืื– ืฉื•ื‘ ื™ื”ื ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ. ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื”ืฉืื™ืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืขืœื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื”ื ืžื•ื›ืŸ ื•ืจืื•ื™ ืœื”ืงืจื‘ื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืขืช., ื•ืื™ืœื• ืืช ื”ืื™ืœ ืฉื—ื˜ ื‘ืฆื“ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืœืฆืคื•ื ื•.

ืœื›ืŸ ืžืื–, ื‘ืฉืขื” ืฉื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžืงืจื™ื‘ื™ื ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื•ืฉื•ื—ื˜ื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืœืฆื“ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืฆืคื•ื ื” ื•ืงื•ืจืื™ื ืžืงืจื ื–ื”, ื”ืจื™ ื–ื” ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ืืช ืขืงื™ื“ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื•ืžืขื•ืจืจ ืืช ื’ื•ื“ืœ ื”ืื”ื‘ื” ื•ืžืกืจื•ืช ื ืคืฉ ืฉืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื•, ืฉืœืจื•ื‘ ืื”ื‘ืชื• ื•ืจืฆื•ื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืืช ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”'ื”ืฉืื™ืจ ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืข"ื’ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—ืฉืžื ืฉื•ื‘ ื™ื–ื“ืงืง ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ื•, ื•ืข"ื› ื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืื™ืœ ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ. ื ืžืฆื ืฉื”ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื” ื‘"ืฆืคื•ืŸ"ืžื–ื›ืจืช ื•ืžืขื•ืจืจืช ืขื ื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื•ืื›ืŸ ืžื˜ืขื ื–ื” ื•ื–ื›ืจ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ื ืงื‘ืข ืžื›ืืŸ ื•ืื™ืœืš ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืžืงื•ื ืฉื—ื™ื˜ืช ืงื“ืฉื™ ืงื“ืฉื™ื ื‘ืฆื“ ืฆืคื•ืŸ[68].

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ื‘ืขื ื™ืŸ ื–ืจื™ืงืช ื”ื“ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืขืžื“ ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ื™ ืขื–ืจื™ ืžืจื’ืœื™ื•ืช ื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืงืืœื™ืฉ [ืช'ืœืขืจืš, ืคืœืืฆืง โ€“ ืชืข"ื“, ืฆืคืช] ื•ืคื™ืจืฉ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ (ื™ืœืง"ืฉ, ื•ื™ืจื ืงื) ืฉื”ืžืœืื›ื™ื ืชืžื”ื• 'ืจืื•, ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉื•ื—ื˜ ื•ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื ืฉื—ื˜', ืฉื›ื•ื•ื ืชื ืฉื”ืœื ืื‘ืจื”ื ืขืžื“ ืฉื ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™: "ื•ืื™ืŸ ืื™ืฉ ืœืงื‘ืœ ื“ืžื• ื•ื"ื› ื–ืืช ืฉืืœืช ื”ืžืœืื›ื™ื 'ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉื•ื—ื˜', ื•ื"ื› ื™ื”ื ื“ืžื• ื ืฉืคืš ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืคื” ื•ืื—"ื› ืืกืคื•, ืคืกื•ืœ"[69]. ื•ื›ืŸ ืคื™ืจืฉ ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘"ืจ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื—ื–ืŸ ืฉืชืœื•ื ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื™ืชื”: "ื”ื™ื•ืช ื•ืื‘ืจื”ื ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืื•ืœื™ ืœื ื™ืงื‘ืœ ื”ื“ื ื›ืชืงื•ื ื”.. ื•ืžื” ืฉืฆืจ ืœื™ ื”ื•ื ืขืœ ื“ืžื™..."[70].

ื”ืื ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœืงื— ืขืžื• ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื ื—ื•ืฅ ืœืงืจื‘ืŸ

ืžื–ืจืง

ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืื ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœืงื— ืขืžื• ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื ื—ื•ืฅ ืœื”ืงืจื‘ื”, ืžื“ื•ืข ืœื ืœืงื— 'ืžื–ืจืง', ื›ืœื™ ืœืงื‘ืœืช ื”ื“ื, ืฉื”ืจื™ ืœืงื‘ืœืช ื”ื“ื ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ื›ืœื™-ืฉืจืช? ืชืžื™ื”ื” ื–ื• ืžืขืœื” ืจื‘ื™ ืคื ื—ืก ืžื ื—ื ื™ื•ืกื˜ืžืŸ ืื‘"ื“ ืคื™ืœืฅ, ื•ื ื›ื“ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืจื™"ื. ืœืื—ืจ ืคืœืคื•ืœ ื‘ื’ื“ืจื• ืฉืœ ืžื–ื‘ื— ื–ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”, ื”ื•ื ืžืขืœื” ืฉืžื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ืฉืžืŸ ืœืžืฉื—ื•, ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ื˜ื•ื‘-ื˜ืขื: ื”ืจื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ ื”ื™ื” 'ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืฉื ืœืขื•ืœื”'ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื"ืฆ ืงื‘ืœืช ื“ื ื‘ื›ืœื™, ืฉื”ืจื™ ื–ืจื™ืงืช ื”ื“ื ืชืชืงื™ื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ืฆื•ืืจ ืื ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ืœืœื ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ื›ืœื™[71].

ืžืœื—

ืื‘"ื“ ืคื™ืœืฅ ืขื•ืžื“ ื’ื ืขืœ ืื™ ืื–ื›ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ืืช ืžืœื— ืžื˜ืขื ืื‘ืจื”ื, ื”ืœื ื—ื™ื•ื‘ ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืžืขื˜ ืžืœื—[72]. ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื–ืืช ืžืขืœื” ื”ื•ื ืฉื ื™ ืžื”ืœื›ื™ื. ืฉืžื ื—ื™ื•ื‘ ื”ืงืจื‘ืช ืžืœื— ื”ื•ื ื“ื™ื™ืงื ืขืœ ืื™ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืžืขืœื ืข"ื’ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื"ื  ืฉืžื ืกื‘ืจ ื›ืจื‘ื™ (ืžื ื—ื•ืช ืงื• ืข"ื‘) ืฉืขืฆื™ื ื ืงืจื ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื•ื˜ืขื•ื ื™ื ืžืœื— ื•ื”ื’ืฉื”[73], ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื• ืžืฆื•ืช ืžืœื™ื—ื” ืขืœ ื”ืขืฆื™ื[74].

ืขื•ื“ ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ, ืžื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื™ ืžืื™ืจ ืฉืžื—ื” ืžื“ื•ื•ื™ื ืกืง, ืฉื‘ื‘ืžื” ืื™ืŸ ืฆืจื™ืš ืžืœื—[75], ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืœืฉื™ื˜ื” ื”ืกื•ื‘ืจืช ืฉืœืขืงื™ื“ื” ื“ื™ืŸ ื‘ืžื”, ื ื™ื—ื[76].

ื™ื™ืŸ

ืขืœ ืคืจื˜ ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉื—ืกืจ ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžื” ืžืขืœื” ื”ืจื‘ื™ ืžืคื™ืœืฅ ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ืกื›ื•, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืš ื”ื•ื ืžืขืœื”: ื”ืœื ืงื™ื™"ืœ ืื“ื ืžื‘ื™ื ื–ื‘ื—ื• ื”ื™ื•ื ื•ื ืกื›ื™ื• ืœืื—ืจ ื›ืžื” ื™ืžื™ื, ื•ืื•ืœื™ ื—ืฉืฉ ืœื”ืืžื™ืŸ ื ืขืจื™ื• ืขืœ ื”ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ืกืš, ืข"ื› ื”ื•ื˜ื‘ ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื• ืฉื™ืœืš ืื—"ื› ืœื ืกืš[77].

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ืžืื™ืžืชื™ ื—ืœ ืฉื "ืงืจื‘ืŸ"ื‘"ืขื•ืœืช ื™ืฆื—ืง"

ืขืœ ื”ืคืกื•ืง "ืืœ ืชืฉืœื— ื™ื“ืš ืืœ ื”ื ืขืจ"ืคืจืฉ"ื™: "ืืžืจ ืœื• ืื‘ืจื”ื , ื"ื› ืœื—ื ื ื‘ืืชื™ ืœื›ืืŸ, ืขืฉื” ื‘ื• ื—ื‘ืœื” ื•ืื•ืฆื™ื ืžืžื ื• ืžืขื˜ ื“ื". ืืžืจ ืœื• ื”ืงื‘"ื”: ืืœ ืชืขืฉ ืœื• ืžืื•ืžื”, ืืœ ืชืขืฉ ื‘ื• ืžื•ื". ื•ืœื›ืื•ืจื”, ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืชืžื•ื”ื™ื ื•ืื•ืžืจื™ื ื“ืจืฉื ื™. ื”ื’ืจื™"ื– ืžื‘ืจื™ืกืง ื‘ื™ืืจ, ืฉื“ื™ืŸ 'ืขื•ืœื”'ืฉื ืืžืจ ื‘ื™ืฆื—ืง ื—ืœื•ืง ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืฉืืจ ื“ื™ื ื™ื ื”ื ืืžืจื™ื ื‘ืฉืืจ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขื•ืœื”. ื‘ื›ืœ ืงืจื‘ื ื•ืช ืขื•ืœื” ืื™ืŸ ื“ื™ื ื™ "ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”"ื‘ื”ื ื‘ื”ื™ื•ืชื ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื, ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื 'ืงืจื‘ืŸ'ืื™ื ื• ืืœื ืžืขืช ื”ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื”, ืฉื”ื™ื ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ื•ืžืžื ื” ื•ื”ืœืื” ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ื”ืงืจื‘ื”. ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ืืฆืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื ืืžืจ ื“ื™ืŸ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืฉืœ "ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”"ื”ืขืœื” โ€“ "ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืฉื ืœืขื•ืœื”".

ื•ืžืขืชื” ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืชื‘ืืจ ืฉื‘ืขื•ืœืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื ืืžืจื• ื“ื™ื ื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื’ื ืงื•ื“ื ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื”, ื™ืชื‘ืืจื• ื•ื™ื•ื‘ื ื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื: ืืžืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืœ ื”', ื”ื ื” ืืฃ ืฉื ืืžืจ ืฉืœื ืœืฉื—ื•ื˜ ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ื ื•, ืžื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื• ื“ื™ืŸ ื–ืจื™ืงื” ื’ื ืžื—ื™ื™ื. ื•ืืžื ื ื‘ืฉืืจ ืงืจื‘ื ื•ืช ืื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื›ื ืชืžืฆื ื›ื–ื”, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื›ืœ "ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”"ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ืจืง ื‘ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื”, ืื•ืœื ื›ืืžื•ืจ ื‘ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื ื”, ื•ื”ื™ื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืืฃ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื ื•ืข ื›ืขืช ืžืœืฉื—ื˜ื•, ืื‘ืœ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื• ืืช ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ืจื™ืฆื•ื™ ืฉืœ ืงืจื‘ืŸ, ืฉื”ื•ื "ื–ืจื™ืงื”". ืขื“ ืฉื”ื•ืฆืจืš ื”'ืœืฆื•ื•ืชื• "ืืœ ืชืขืฉ ืœื• ืžืื•ืžื”". ืืœ ืชืขืฉ ืœื• ืžื•ื ื•ื—ืœื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื•ื.

ื“ืจืฉื• ื‘ื™ืœืงื•ื˜: ืืžืจ ื”'ืœื™ืฆื—ืง, ืืชื” ืขื•ืœื” ืชืžื™ืžื”, ืžื” ืขื•ืœื” ืื ื™ื•ืฆืืช ื—ื•ืฅ ืœืงืœืขื™ื ื ืคืกืœืช, ืืฃ ืื ืชืฆื ืœื—ื•ืฅ ืชื™ืคืกืœ.

ืœื›ืื•ืจื”, ื”ืจื™ ื›ืœ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ื“ื• ื—ื™ ืืฃ ืื ื”ื•ื›ื ืก ืœืขื–ืจื” ื•ืื—"ื› ื”ื•ืฆื, ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ืš ืคืกื•ืœ, 'ื™ื•ืฆื'ื•ื"ื› ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื‘ื• ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืขื•ื“ื• ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื, ื•ื™ืฉ ืขืœื™ื• ื“ื™ืŸ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื’ืžื•ืจ, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื ืคืกืœ ื‘"ื™ื•ืฆื".

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'ื ืื—ื– ื‘ืกื‘ืš ื‘ืงืจื ื™ื•' -ื ื™ืฆื•ื“ ื•ืขื•ืžื“

'ื•ื™ืฉื ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ืขื™ื ื™ื• ื•ื”ื ื” ืื™ืœ ืื—ืจ ื ืื—ื– ื‘ืกื‘ืš ื‘ืงืจื ื™ื• ื•ื™ืœืš ืื‘ืจื”ื ื•ื™ืงื— ืืช ื”ืื™ืœ ื•ื”ืขืœื•ื”ื• ืœืขื•ืœื” ืชื—ืช ื‘ื ื•'.

ื•ืœื›ืื•ืจื”, ืœืคื™ ื”ืืžื•ืจ ื‘ื—ื–"ืœ ื”ื™ืชื” ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›, ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื–ื” ืขื‘ืจ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืขืœ ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืฆื™ื“ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›?

ืคื™ืจืฉ ืžื”ืจื™"ืœ ื“ื™ืกืงื™ืŸ, ื›ื™ ืœื ื›ื“ื™ ื”ืื™ืœ "ื ืื—ื“ ื‘ืกื‘ืš ื‘ืงืจื ื™ื•". ื”ื ื” ื›ื™ ื›ืŸ, ืื™ืœื• ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื”ืื™ืœ ื ืื—ื– ื‘ืกื‘ืš ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืงื—ืชื• ืžืฉื•ื ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืฆื™ื“ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›..

ืื•ืœื ืžืื—ืจ ืฉื ืื—ื– ื‘ืกื‘ืš ื‘ืงืจื ื™ื•, ื”ืจื™ ื–ื” ื›ื ื™ืฆื•ื“ ื•ืขืžื“, ื•ืื™ืŸ ื›ืืŸ ืฆื™ื“ื” ื•ืžื•ืชืจ (ืข'ืžืกื›ืช ื‘ื™ืฆื” ื›ื“.)

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ืคื ื™ื ื” ื™ืงืจื” ืฉืžืขืชื™ ืžืคื™ ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจื‘ื™ ืžืื™ืจ ืกื•ืœื•ื‘ื™ื™ืฆ'ื™ืง ืฉืœื™ื˜"ื ื‘ืฉื ืื‘ื™ื• ื”ื’ืจื™"ื– ืžื‘ืจื™ืกืง ืฉื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ืจืฆื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ื›ืžื” ื˜ื™ืคืช ื“ื ืžื™ืฆื—ืง, ืฉื›ืžื• ืฉื ืชืงื™ื™ื ืืฆืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืขืœื”ื• ื—ื™ ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ืฉืžื ืืคืฉืจ ืœืงื™ื™ื ื’ื ื“ื™ืŸ ื–ืจื™ืงืช ื”ื“ื ื‘ื• ื‘ืขื•ื“ื• ื—ื™, ื•ืœืœื ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื”, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืจืฆื” ืœืงื™ื™ื ื’ื ืžืฆื•ืช ื–ืจื™ืงืช ื”ื“ื.

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ืฉื•ืคืจ ืžืื™ืœื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง

ื‘ืคืจืฉืช ื™ืชืจื• ืขืœ ื”ืคืกื•ืง 'ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื™ื•ื‘ืœ ื”ืžื” ื™ืขืœื• ื‘ื”ืจ' (ืฉืžื•ืช ื™ื˜, ื™ื’) ืคืจืฉ"ื™: "ื•ื”ื•ื ืฉื•ืคืจ ืฉืœ ืื™ืœ ื•ืฉื•ืคืจ ืฉืœ ืื™ืœื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื™ื”".

ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืœืคืจืฉ ื‘ืขื”"ื˜: "ืฉื’ื ืœืฉื ื ื–ื“ืžืŸ ืœื• ืฉื•ืคืจ ืžืื™ืœื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื•ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื–ื” ื”ืฉื•ืคืจ ืฉืœ ืžืชืŸ ืชื•ืจื” ื ืคืœื” ื—ื•ืžืช ื™ืจื™ื—ื•".

ื•ื”ืงืฉื” ื”ืจืžื‘"ืŸ ื”ืœื ืื™ืœ ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืขื•ืœื”, ื•ื”ืœื ื“ื™ืŸ ืขื•ืœื” ืœืขืœื•ืชื• ื›ืœื™ืœ โ€“ ื›ื•ืœ ื”ืงืจื ื™ื™ื ื•ื˜ืœืคื™ื™ื,.

ื•ืชื™ืจืฅ ืžื”ืจื™"ืœ ื“ื™ืกืงื™ืŸ, ื›ื™ ื™"ืœ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื–ื” ืื™ืœ ื–ืงืŸ ื•ื”ืชืงืฉื• ื”ืงืจื ื™ื™ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžืจื•ื‘ ื–ืงื ื”, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืœื ืฉืœื˜ื” ื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ืืฉ, ื•ื ืชืคืงืขื• ืžืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—. ื•ื”ืœื ื“ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื (ืจืžื‘"ื ื”ืœ'ืžืขืฉื” ื”ืงืจื‘ื ื•ืช ืค"ื™) ื›ื™ ื”ืขืฆืžื•ืช ื•ื”ืงืจื ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื˜ืœืคื™ื™ื ืฉื ืชืคืงืขื• ืžืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื ื™ืขืœื•

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ืœืฉื•ืŸ ืจ'ืฆื‘ื™ ืžื—ื›ืžื™ ืงืœื•ื™ื– (ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื): "ืฉืืœื ื™ ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืžื•ืคืœื ื‘ื ื’ืœื” ื•ื ืกืชืจ ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ ืžื•ื”ืจ"ืจ ืืคืจื™ื ื–ืœืžืŸ ืž"ืž ื“ืง'ื–ืืœืงืื•ื•ื, ืฉืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื”ืคืกื•ืง ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ืœื ืจืื” ืืช ื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ, ื’ื ื‘ืคื™ื•ื˜ ืžืฉืžืข ื›ืš, ื•ื"ื› ืžื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืฉื™ืงืจื™ื‘ ืฉื” ืœืขื•ืœื”, ืฉืžื ื‘ื“ืขืช ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ื 'ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขืฆื™ื'? ื•ื”ื•ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืœื•: ืฉื”ืจื™ ืœืžื“ื™ื 'ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขืฆื™ื'ืžื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ ื‘ืค'ืžื ื—ื” 'ื›ื™ ืชืงืจื™ื‘ ืงืจื‘ืŸ'ื•ื“ืจืฉื• ื—ื–"ืœ: ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืขืฆื™ื, ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืื•ืžืจ 'ื•ื’ื•ืจืœื•ืช ื”ืคืœื ื• ืขืœ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขืฆื™ื (ืžื ื—ื•ืช ืงื• ืข"ื‘). ื•ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื ืืžืจื• 'ืื™ืŸ ืžื ื—ื” ื‘ื‘ืžื”', ื•ืืžืจื• ืฉื, ืื™ืŸ ืขื•ืคื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืžื” ืž"ื˜ ื–ื‘ื— ื•ืœื ืžื ื—ื” ื•ืœื ืขื•ืคื•ืช. ืœืคื™ ื–ื” ื’ื ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืœื ื”ืงืจื™ื‘ื• ื‘ื‘ืžื”, ืฉืœื ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืžืงืจื‘ืŸ ืžื ื—ื”, ื•ืœืจื‘ื™ ื”ื•ื” ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขืฆื™ื โ€“ ืžื ื—ื” (ืขื™ื™ืŸ ื“ืฃ ื› ืข"ื‘), ื•ื"ื› ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžืกื•ืคืง ื›ืœืœ ืฉื™ื‘ื™ื ืื‘ืจื”ื ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขืฆื™ื, ื›ื™ ืื™ื ื• ืงืจื‘ ื‘ื‘ืžื”. ื•ื”ื•ื“ื” ื”ืจื‘ ื”ื "ืœ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ื›ื™ ื ืจืื” ื ื›ื•ืŸ"[78].


ื‘ืจื›ืช ื”ื’ื•ืžืœ ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ื™ืฆืœ ืžื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”

ื›ืชื‘ ื”ื—ื™ื“"ื (ืžื—ื–"ื‘ ืื•"ื— ืกื™'ืจื™ื˜): "ืืจื‘ืข ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ื•ื›ื•'. ืจืื™ืชื™ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ื•ื™ื›ื•ื— ืงืฆืจ ืžื”ืจื‘ ื”ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง ื›ืžื”ืจ"ืจ ืืœื™ืขื–ืจ ื ื—ื•ื ื–"ืœ ืขื ืขื˜"ืจ ืื‘ื ืžืืจื™, ื‘ื—ืœื•ืžื™ ื•ื”ื ื” ื”ื—ื›ื ื”ืฉืœื ื›ืžื•ื”"ืจ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื–ืจื—ื™ื” ืื–ื•ืœืื™ ืœืคื ื™ ื•ืจืื™ืชื™ ืฉื”ืœื ื“ื‘ืจ: ื™ืฆื—ืง ืื‘ื™ื ื• ืฉื ื™ืฆื•ืœ ืžื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื‘ื™ืจืš ื‘ืจื›ืช ื”ื’ื•ืžืœ ื“ื”ื ื‘ื ืœื™ื“ื™ ืกื›ื ื”, ืื• ืœื?
"ื•ื›ืŸ ื“'ื ื›ื ืกื• ืœืคืจื“ืก ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืงื•ื ืกื›ื ื”, ืฉื”ืจื™ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื”ืฆื™ืฅ ื•ืžืช ื•ืื—ื“ ื”ืฆื™ืฅ ื•ื ืคื’ืข, ื"ื› ืจ'ืขืงื™ื‘ื ืฉื™ืฆื ื‘ืฉืœื•ื, ื‘ื™ืจืš ื‘ืจื›ืช ื”ื’ื•ืžืœ ืื• ืœื?

ื•ื›ืŸ ื›ื”"ื’ ืฉื”ื™ ื ื›ื ืก ืœื™ื•ื”"ื› ืœืคื ื™ ื•ืœืคื ื™ื, ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืงื•ื ืกื›ื ื”, ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื™ื• ืื•ืžืจื™ื ืœื• ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ื ื›ื ืก ืœืžืงื•ื ืœื”ื‘ืช ืฉืœื”ื‘ืช, ื•ื‘ืฆืืชื• ื‘ืฉืœื•ื ืžืŸ ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ ื”ื™ื” ืžื‘ืจืš ื‘ืจื›ืช ื”ื’ื•ืžืœ, ืื• ืœื?

ืืœื” ื”ืฉืืœื•ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืฉื•ืืœ ื‘ื—ืœื•ืžื™ ืœืื—ื™ื ื• ื”ื ื–ื›ืจ ื•ืœื ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืื•ืชื™ ื“ื‘ืจ. ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ืฆื™ื ืžืฉืคื˜ื ืœืื•ืจื”.

"ื•ืœืขื "ื“ ื ืจืื” ืœื—ืœืง ื›ื™ ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ืชืงื ื• ืจื‘ื ืŸ ืœื‘ืจืš ื‘ืจื›ืช ื”ื’ื•ืžืœ ืฉื”ื™ื ื‘ืจื›ืช ื”ื•ื“ืื”, ืืœื ื“ื•ืงื ื‘ืฆืจื” ื”ื‘ืื” ืœืื“ื ื‘ืขืœ ื›ืจื—ื• ื•ืฉืœื ืžื“ืขืชื•, ื•ื ืขืฉื” ืœื• ื ืก, ืื– ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื‘ืจืš, ื›ื™ ื”ื ื™ ืืจื‘ืขื” [ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื•ื“ื•ืช] ื›ื™"ื—ื™ื™ื"ื”ื.

ื—ื•ืœื”, ื”ื™ืจืฆื” ืื“ื ืฉื™ื—ืœื”, ื”ืจื™ ืคืชืข ืคืชืื•ื ื‘ืขืœ ื›ืจื—ื• ื‘ื ื”ื—ื•ืœื™, ื›ืžืขื˜ ืฉื›ื‘ ื‘ื“ืžืฉืง ืขืจืก ืžืชื•ืš ืฆืจืชื• ื•ื›ื•ื‘ื“ ื—ืœื™ื• ืฉื‘ ื•ืจืคื ืœื•, ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื‘ืจืš.

ื™ืกื•ืจื™ืŸ, ื’"ื› ื‘ืื™ื ืœืื“ื ื‘ืข"ื› ื•ื›ืฉื ื™ืฆื•ืœ ืžื”ื ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื•ื”ื• ืœื‘ืจืš, ื“ืื™ ืœื ืชื™ืžื ื”ื›ื™, ืจ"ื ื‘ืจ"ืฉ ื“ื‘ืื•ืจืชื ืืžืจ (ืœื™ื™ืกื•ืจื™ื) ื‘ื•ืื• ืื—ื™ ื‘ืื• ืจืขื™, ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื›ื™ ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื ื•ื™ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžื‘ืจืš, ืื™ืŸ ื”ื“ืขืช ืžืงื‘ืœื•, ื“ืžืกื•ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื™ื“ื• ื•ืžื”ื™ื›ื™ ืชื™ืชื™ ืฉื™ื‘ืจืš ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื. ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื ื™ื™ืกื•ืจื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ืœืื“ื ื‘ืข"ื› ื•ื ื™ืฆื•ืœ ืžื”ื, ื”ื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืš.

ืืžื ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืžืืžืจ ื•ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ ื”'ืœืขืฉื•ืชื•, ืื– ืืคื™ืœื• ืฉืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืคืจื˜ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื™ื—ื™ื“, ืจืง ืžื™ืžืจื ื“ืจื—ืžื ื ืœืงื“ืฉ ืฉืžื•, ืืฃ ืฉื”ืงื‘"ื” ื™ืขืฉื” ืœื• ื ืก ืื™ื ื• ืžื‘ืจืš. ื•ื›ืŸ ืื ื™ ืื•ืžืจ ื›ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืื‘ื™ื ื• ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืžืืžืจื• ื•ื’ื–ื™ืจืชื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืš, ืืฃ ืฉื ื™ืฆื•ืœ ืื™ื ื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื‘ืจืš.

ืืžืจ ื™ื—ื™ืืœ: ืœืคื™ ื”ืกื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืื›ืŸ ืคืจื—ื” ื ืฉืžืชื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง, ืื• ื”ื“ื™ืขื” ื”ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ืฉืจืคื•, ื•ืจืง ืงื ืœืชื—ื™ื”, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ืืจื›ื ื• ื‘ืฉื•ืœื—ื ื ื• ื‘ืคืจืฉืช ืชืฉ"ืข, ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื‘ืจืš ื‘ืจื•ืš ืžื—ื™ื” ื”ืžืชื™ื[79].

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[1]"ื›ืžื” ื”ืœื›ื•ืช ืœืžื“ื• ื‘ืžื“ืจืฉื™ ื”ืชื ืื™ื ืžืคืจื˜ื™ ืžืขืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขืงื“ื”", ื›ืš ืคืชื— ืจื‘ื™ ืฉ"ื™ ื–ื•ื™ืŸ ืืช ืคืจืงื• ืขืœ ื”ืขืงื“ื”, ืœืื•ืจ ื”ื”ืœื›ื”, ืขืž'ืจื•. ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื: ื—ื™ื•ื‘ ืฉืžื™ืขื” ืœื ื‘ื™ื, ื–ืจื™ื–ื™ื ืžืงื“ื™ืžื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื•ืช. ืฉื ื™ ื“ื™ื ื™ื ืœืžื“ื• ืž"ื•ื™ืงื— ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช", ืžื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœืงืจื‘ืŸ, ืฉืฆืจื™ืš ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืœืฉื—ื™ื˜ื”, ื•ืœืฉื—ื™ื˜ื” ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืชืœื•ืฉ, ืฉื ืืžืจ 'ื•ืงื— ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช' (ื—ื•ืœื™ืŸ ื˜ื–).
[2]ื›ืš ื”ื•ื ืœืคื™ ืคืฉื•ื˜ื• ืฉืœ ืžืงืจื ืฉืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื ืกื—ื‘ ื›ื‘ืจ ืžื‘ื™ืชื•, ื•ืœื ื›ืŸ ื“ืขืช ื”ืื‘ืจื‘ื ืืœ ื•ื”ืขืžืง ื“ื‘ืจ, ืฉืจืง ืื—ืจื™ ื™ืฆื™ืืชื• ืžื”ืขื™ืจ ื‘ืงืข ืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื [ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืขื™ืจ ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืคืืœืื’'ื™ ืฉืžืจื”ื™ื˜ื•ืช ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืคืกื•ืง ืžืฉืžืข ืฉืœื ื›ืื‘ืจื‘ื ืืœ, ืฉืžื• ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืžืข'ืขืงื“ื”, ื“ืฃ ืงืขื ื˜ื•"ื“].
[3]ื•ืจืื” ืชื•"ืฉ ืกืขื™ืฃ ืก. ืืคืฉืจ ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉื”ืจืžื‘"ืŸ ืœืžื“ ื–ืืช ืžื“ื™ื•ืง ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžืงืจื ืขืฆื™-ืขื•ืœื”, ื”ืื ื™ืฉ 'ืขืฆื™ ืขื•ืœื”', ื”ืจื™ ื‘ื›ืœ ืขืฅ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืขืฅ ืœืขื•ืœื”, ืืœื ืข"ื› ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืขืฅ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“, ื•ื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ 'ื‘ืืจ ืžื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื'ืขืœ ืืชืจ; ื•ืจืื” 'ืฉื™ื— ื™ืฆื—ืง' (ื•ื™ื™ืก).
[4]ื”ื ืœืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื”ื‘ื”ื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฆื™"ื‘ ืžื•ื•ืืœื•ื–'ื™ืŸ ื‘ืคืจืฉืชื™ื ื• (ื›ื‘, ื˜): "ื›ืœืœ ื–ื” ื‘ื ืœืœืžื“ื ื•, ื›ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”'ืฉื™ืชื ื”ื’ ื›ื“ื™ืŸ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืข ืฉืขืœ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืงื“ืฉ ืฉื”ืจื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ืœืžื“ ื›ืœ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื›ื•ืœื”, ื•ื™ื“ืข ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืžืงื“ืฉ, ื‘ื™ืŸ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื‘ืžื”, ื•ื›ืœ ื“ื™ื ื™ ืชืžื™ื“...". ื•ื›ืœืœ ื›ืœืœ ืœื ื• ืจื‘ื™ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื•ื•ืืœืฃ ืื‘"ื“ ื•ืจ"ืž ืœืื ื“ืกื‘ืจื’, ื‘ืกืคืจื• 'ื ื—ืœืช ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ืขืœ ืžื ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืฆื•ื•ืช: ืฉื›ืœ ืงืจื‘ื ื•ืช ื”ืื‘ื•ืช, ืงืจื‘ื ื•ืช ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืžื™ืงืจื™, ืฉื”ืื‘ื•ืช ื›ืจื‘ื™ื ื“ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืŸ ืœื™ื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื”ื ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื• ื›ืœื•ืœื™ื ืžืก'ืจื™ื‘ื•ื...", ื ื—ืœืช ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ, ืืžืกื˜ืจื“ื ืชืž"ื‘, ืžืฆื•ื” ืงื‘, ื“ืฃ ืงืœื‘ ื˜ื•"ื“.
[5]ืืžืจื™ ื‘ื™ื ื” ืขื”"ืช, ื ืื•ื•ื™ื“ื•ื•ืืจ ืชืงืก"ื•, ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืจื.
[6]ืคืฉื•ื˜ื• ืฉืœ ืžืงืจื: ืฉืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ื ืฉืื• ื”ื ืขืจื™ื ื•ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืืœื•, ืžืฉื”ืคืจื“ื• ืžื”ื, ื”ื™ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืงื—ืชื ื‘ืขืฆืžื, ืžื ื—ื ืจ?, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืœืžื” ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœื ื”ืฆื™ื‘ ืขื“ ืขืชื” ืืช ืชืžื™ื”ืชื•. ืžืื™ื“ืš ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ 'ืฉืคืชื™ ื›ื”ืŸ'ืขื”"ืช (ื“"ื” ื•ื™ืงื— ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ืขืฆื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื”) ืžืฉืžืข ืฉืžื”ืชื—ืœืช ื”ื“ืจืš ืœื ื”ื•ืœื™ื›ื• ืขืœ ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ ื“ื‘ืจ.
[7]ื”ื’ืžืจื ื“ื ื” ืฉื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืคืกื— ืฉื—ืœ ื‘ืฉื‘ืช, ืืžืจ ืžืจ, ืœืžื—ืจ (ื‘ืฉื‘ืช) ืžื™ ืฉืคืกื—ื• ื˜ืœื” ืชื•ื—ื‘ ืœื• ืืช ื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืœืฉื—ื™ื˜ื” ื‘ืฆืžืจื•. ืฉื•ืืœืช ื”ื’ืžืจื: ื•ื”ื ืงื ืขื‘ื™ื“ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืงื“ืฉื™ื, ื•ืžืฉื ื™ ื›ื”ืœืœ, ืฉืžืกื•ืคืจ ืขืœื™ื•: ืžื™ืžื™ื• ืœื ืžืขืœ ืื“ื ื‘ืขื•ืœืชื• ืืœื ืžื‘ื™ืื” ื—ื•ืœื™ืŸ ืœืขื–ืจื” ื•ืžืงื“ื™ืฉื” ื•ืกื•ืžืš ื™ื“ื• ืขืœื™ื” ื•ืฉื•ื—ื˜ื”.
[8]ืžืฉื ืช ืจ'ืืœื™ืขื–ืจ ื˜ืจืœื™ื ื’ืจ, ืคืคื“"ื ืชืก"ื—, ืขืœ ืืชืจ: ืฉืžืขืชื™ ืžืคื” ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืžื”ืจ"ืจ ื”ืขืฉื™ืœ".. ืžืขืชื” ืื•ืกื™ืฃ ื ื•ืคืš ืžืฉืœื™....
[9]ืจื‘ื™ ืฉืžื•ืืœ ืคื™ื™ื‘ื™ืฉ ื›ื”ื ื, ืžื’ื•ืœื™ ื•ื•ื™ื ื, ื ื›ื“ ื”ืกืž"ืข, ื‘ืกืคืจื• 'ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืฉืžื•ืืœ'ื•ื™ื ื™ืฆื™ื” ืชื "ื“, ื“ืฃ ืžื” ื˜ื•"ื“, ืžื‘ื™ื ืืžืจื” ื–ื• ื‘ืฉื 'ืฉืžืขืชื™', ื•ื™ื“ื•ืข ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืงื•ืจ ืœืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืžืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจ"ืจ ื”ืขืฉื™ืœ, ื•ื“"ืœ; ืจื‘ื™ ืืœื™ื”ื• ื“ื•ื“ ืจื‘ื™ื ื•ื‘ื™ืฅ-ืชืื•ืžื™ื, ืื‘"ื“ ืžื™ืจ-ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื‘ืขืœ ื”ืื“ืจ"ืช, ืกื“ืจ ืคืจืฉื™ื•ืช, ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉืก"ื“, ืขืž'ืงืขื” ื‘ืฉื ืจื‘ื™ ื”ืขืฉื™ืœ. ืจื‘ื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื• ืœืืžืจื” ื–ื• ื•ืจืฉืžื•ื”ื• ืžื“"ืข: ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ื™ืขื–ืจื™ ืžืจื’ืœื•ืช ื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืงืืœื™ืฉ, ื›ืกืฃ ื ื‘ื—ืจ, ืืžืกื˜ืจื“ื ืชืข"ื‘, ืค'ื•ื™ืจื ื“ืฃ ื– ืข"ื‘; ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื“ื™ื“ื” ื‘"ืจ ืื”ืจืŸ ืืฉื›ื ื–ื™, ื™ื“ื™ื“ ื”', ืฉืืœื•ื ื™ืงื™ ืชืง"ืš, ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืจื, ื“ืฃ ื— ื˜ื•"ื‘, ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืกืคื“ ืขืœ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžืื™ื™ื• ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืง"ื™; ื—ืช"ืก ืขื”"ืช, ืขืž'ืขื‘ ื˜ื•"ื‘; ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืžืฉื•ืœื ืื•ืจื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ืื‘"ื“ ืœื‘ื•ื‘, ื™ืฉื•ืขื•ืช ื™ืขืงื‘ ืขื”"ืช, ื•ื•ืืจืฉื ืชืจืก"ื•, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื; ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื’ื•ืื™ื˜ื”, ืžืจื‘ื™ืฅ ืชื•ืจื” ื˜ืจื™ืืกื˜ื” [ืœื•ื‘, ืชืงืœ"ื– โ€“ ืฆืคืช, ืชืจื˜"ื–], ืฉื“ื” ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื•ื•ื™ื ื ืชืจื™"ื, ื—ืœืง ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ื ืขื”"ืช, ืค'ื•ื™ืจื; ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืงืื ื˜ืจื•ื‘ื™ืฅ ืื‘"ื“ ื˜ื™ืžืงื•ื‘ื™ืฅ, ื‘ื”ื’ื”ื•ืชื™ื• ืขื”"ืช, ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื’ืจ"ื™, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉืœ"ื˜, ืขืž'ืžื˜.
ื‘'ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืฉืžื•ืืœ'ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ืžื“ื™ืœื™ื”: ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ืžืกื›ืช ืขืจื›ื™ืŸ (ื“ืฃ ื”) ืื“ื ื ืงืจื ื‘ืขืœ ืžื•ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ืœื›ืŸ ืฉืืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง 'ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื”'?, ื•ืื‘ืจื”ื ื”ืฉื™ื‘: 'ืืœื™ื”ื ื™ืจืื” ืœื•', ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื”ื•ืจืืช ืฉืขื”. ื‘ืกืคืจ ื™ื“ื™ื“ ื”'ื“ื™ื™ืง ืืช ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™: ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• 'ืฉื'ืœืขื•ืœื”, ื“ื™ื™ืงื ืฉื ืชืงื“ื™ืฉื”ื• ืœืขื•ืœื”.
[10]ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืชื™ื›ืฃ ืขื ื™ืฆื™ืืชื• ืขืžื•, ื›ืŸ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื”'ืกืœื™ื—ื”'ืฉื—ื™ื‘ืจ ืจื‘ื ื• ืืคืจื™ื ืžืจื’ื ืฉื‘ื•ืจื’, ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ ืœืฆื•ื ื’ื“ืœื™ื” [ื ื‘]: "ืจืฅ ืืœ ื”ื ืขืจ ื•ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื•, ื•ื ืคืฉื• ืงืฉื•ืจื” ื‘ื ืคืฉื•, ืขื˜ืจื• ื‘ืขืฆื™ื ื•ืืฉื•, ื•ื ื–ืจ ืืœืงื™ื• ืขืœ ืจืืฉื•". ืžืื™ื“ืš ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจ'ืื”ืจืŸ ืœื™ื™ื‘ ืฉื˜ื™ื™ื ืžืŸ ืจืืฉ ื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืคื•ื ื™ื‘ื–'ืžืขืœื” ืฉื›ื•ื•ื ืช ื”ืคื™ื™ื˜ืŸ ื”ื™ื ืฉื™ื™ื—ื“ื• ืœืงื•ืจื‘ืŸย  - ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื•, ืื™ื™ืœืช ื”ืฉื—ืจ, ื‘ื ื™ ื‘ืจืง ืชืฉืก"ื•, ืคืจืฉืช ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช, ืขืž'ืจื.
ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื‘ื•ืœืขืคื™ื” (ื”ืฉื ื™) ื“ื™ื™ืง ืืช ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืคืกื•ืง 'ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืฉื ืœืขื•ืœื”', ืฉื”ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ ื”ื™ื” ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืขื•ืœื”: "ืฉืชืงื“ื™ืฉื”ื• ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขื•ืœื” ืงื•ื“ื ืขืœื™ื™ืชืš ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ื”ืจื™ื ืฉืื™ืŸ ืžื›ื ื™ืกื™ื ื—ื•ืœื™ืŸ ืœืขื–ืจื”", ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืœืงื—, ืื–ืžื™ืจ ืช"ืฆ, ื“ืฃ ื› ื ืข"ื.
ื‘ืžืง"ื ื›ื•ืชื‘ ืจื—"ื: ื‘ืคืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื”ื•ืื™ืœ ื•ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ืจ"ื”, ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื›ืจื— ืœื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื• ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ, ืฉื”ืจื™ 'ืื™ืŸ ืžืงื“ื™ืฉื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ื ื˜ื•ื‘', ื•ื–ื• ื”ื™ืชื” ืชืžื™ื”ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง, ืžืžื” ื ืคืฉืš, ื”ืœื ื”ื ื—ืช ืขืœื™ ืืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื, ืžื›ืืŸ ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ืงื“ืฉืช ืื•ืชื™, ืืœื ืข"ื› ืฉื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ืชืš ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืฉื”, ื•ืืช ื”ืฉื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื™ืช ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ื—ื’. ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืืœื”ื™ื ื™ืจืื”, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืฆื˜ื•ื™ืชื™ ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ื• ื‘ื™ื•ื ืžืกื•ื™ื, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™, ื”ืจื™ ื”ื•ื ื›ื—ื•ื‘ื” ืงื‘ื•ืขื”, ื•ืงืจื‘ืŸ ื—ื•ื‘ื” ืžื•ืชืจ ืœื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื• ื‘ื—ื’, ืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื, ืื–ืžื™ืจ ืชืฆ"ื“, ืค'ื•ื™ืจื ื“ืฃ ื— ื˜ื•"ื‘. ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืื—ืจ ื“ื™ื™ืง ืืช ืกืžื™ื›ื•ืช 'ืœืขื•ืœื”'ืขื 'ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ื”ืจื™ื', ื•ืœื ืืžืจ: ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ื”ืจื™ื ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืฉื ืœืขื•ืœื”: "ืจืžื– ืฉืืฃ ืฉื™ื•ื-ื˜ื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ืจ"ื” ื”ื™ื”, ืžืื—ืจ ืฉืงื‘ื•ืข ืœื• ืฉืžืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืืชื” ืœื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื• ืœืขื•ืœื”... ืื—ืจ ืขืœื™ื™ืชืš ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ื”ืจ", ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืœืงื—, ืื–ืžื™ืจ ืช"ืฆ, ื“ืฃ ื› ืข"ื‘.
[11]ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜ ื™ื™ืฉื‘ ืืช ื”ืชืžื™ื” ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™, ืฆืคื ืช ืคืขื ื—, ืœืขื™ืœ ื”ืข'5.
[12]ืชื•ืก'ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื ื“ืฃ ืžื• ืข"ื.
[13]ื ืคืœืื™ื ื”ื ืขื“ื•ืช ื”ืื“ืจ"ืช ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื•, ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื ืฉืืœ ืฉืืœื” ื–ื• ื”ืื™ืš ื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ืื‘ืจื”ื ื‘ืงื“ืฉื™ื: "ื•ื”ืฉื‘ืชื™ ืชื™ื›ืฃ ื•ืžื™ื“ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™, ืฉืœืฆื•ืจืš ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืœื ืฉื™ื™ืš ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืงื“ืฉื™ื", ืกื“ืจ ืคืจืฉื™ื•ืช, ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ืขืž'ืงืขื“.
ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ืื ื ืืžืจ ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ ืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืชื™ื›ืฃ ืขื ื™ืฆื™ืืชื• ืขืžื•, ื•ื›ืŸ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื”'ืกืœื™ื—ื”'ืฉื—ื™ื‘ืจ ืจื‘ื ื• ืืคืจื™ื ืžืจื’ื ืฉื‘ื•ืจื’, ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ ืœืฆื•ื ื’ื“ืœื™ื” [ื ื‘]: "ืจืฅ ืืœ ื”ื ืขืจ ื•ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื•, ื•ื ืคืฉื• ืงืฉื•ืจื” ื‘ื ืคืฉื•, ืขื˜ืจื• ื‘ืขืฆื™ื ื•ืืฉื•, ื•ื ื–ืจ ืืœืงื™ื• ืขืœ ืจืืฉื•".
[14]ืžื ื—ื•ืช ืงื.
[15]ืฆืคื ืช ืคืขื ื— ืขื”"ืช, ืขืž'ืคื˜-ืฆ. ื•ืข"ืข ืืจืฅ ื—ืžื“ื” ืฉืฆื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื”ืœืŸ ื”ืข'7. ื•ื›ืขื™"ื– ื‘ืกืคืจ 'ื”ืืฉืœ'ืœืจื‘ื™ ืืฉืจ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืงืœืžื ืงืก ืžืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืŸ, ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืŸ ืชืœ"ื—, ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืจื. ื•ืจืื” ืขื•ื“ 'ืชื•ืจืช ื™ื—ื™ืืœ'ืขืœ ืืชืจ ืขืž'ืงืฆื ื˜ื•"ื. ืจื‘ื™ ืืœื™ืขื–ืจ ืŸ'ืฉืื ื’'ื™ ืื‘"ื“ ืงื•ืฉื˜ื [ืช"ื›-ืชืข"ื‘] ืžืขืœื” ืืช ื”ื“ื•-ืฉื™ื— ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื•ื ื”: ื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื‘ืจื”ื ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ื—ืฉื‘ ืœืขืฆืžื• ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื ืขืงื“ ื•ื”ื ืฉื—ื˜, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืคื ื” ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœืื‘ืจื”ื, ื›ืขืช ืฉืฉื ื™ื ื• ื ื•ื˜ืœื™ื ื›ืœื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ื”ืจื™ ืฉื ื™ื ื• ืžื•ืขืœื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื“ืฉ โ€“ื•ื–ื” ื”ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื‘ื•ื™ืœื›ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื™ื—ื“ื™ื•-, ืขืœ ื›ืจื—ืš ืฉืื™ืŸ ืื ื• ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืฉื™ื ืืœื ืฉื”, ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ืื‘ืจื”ื: "ืื™ืŸ ื”ื“ื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื›ืคื™ ืฉืืชื” ืกื•ื‘ืจ, ื“ืœืžื ื”ืœื›ื” ื›ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ ืฉื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ื•ื ืœืฆื•ืจืš ื”ืขื•ื“ื” ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื• ืžืฉื•ื ืžืขื™ืœื”, ื•ื›ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ืกืคืง, ื”ืœื›ื” ื›ืžื™ ืืœื”ื™ื ื™ื›ืจื™ืข ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืœืืžื™ืชื•; ืฉืื ืืœื”ื™ื ื™ืจืื” ืœื• ื”ืฉื” ื ืคืฉื˜ ื”ืกืคืง ืฉื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืขืžืš, ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืœืฆื•ืจืš ื”ืงืจื‘ืŸ, ื•ืื ืœืื• ื”ืฉื” โ€“ ืœืขื•ืœื” ื‘ื ื™, ืืคื™ืœื• ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื•ืงื“ืฉืช ืœืขื•ืœื”, ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื• ืžืฉื•ื ืžืขื™ืœื”, ื“ืช ื•ื“ื™ืŸ, ืงื•ืฉื˜ื ืชืค"ื•, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื.
ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจื‘ื™ ืฆื‘ื™ ืจื•ื˜ื‘ืจื’ ืจืืฉ-ื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช ื‘ื™ืช ืžืื™ืจ (ื‘ื ื™-ื‘ืจืง), ืžืขื™ืจ ืข"ื“ ื”ืฆ"ืค ืฉื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืฆ"ืข ืžืžืกืงื ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™'ืชื•ืก'ื‘ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื (ืžื– ืข"ื ื“"ื” ืื™ื–ื”ื•) ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ืŸ ืกื›ื™ืŸ ื›ืœื™-ืฉืจืช, ื•ื‘ืคืกื—ื™ื ืžื™ื™ืจื™ ืฉื›ืœ ืื™ื“ ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ ืืช ืกื›ื™ื ื• ืžืขืจื‘ ืฉื‘ืช, ื”ืจื™ ืžื•ื›ืจื— ืฉืืฃ ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ 'ืงื•ื“ืฉ'ืืกื•ืจ ืœืฉื™ืžื• ืขืœ ื”ืงื•ืจื‘ืŸ. ืœื›ืŸ ืคืชื— ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉื”ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืœืฉื™ื ืืช ื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืฉื•ืจืฉื• ืฉื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืื™ื ื• ืืœื "ื”ื›ืฉืจ"ืœืงื•ืจื‘ืŸ, ื•ืื™ืœื• ื”ืขืฆื™ื ื”ื "ื—ืœืง"ืžืขืฆื ื”ืงื•ืจื‘ืŸ, ื•ื—ื™ืœื™ื” ืžืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžืงืจื 'ืขืฆื™-ืขื•ืœื”', ืœืžื™ืกื‘ืจ ืงืจืื™, ื‘ื ื™ ื‘ืจืง ืชืฉืก"ื”, ืขืž'ืกื˜.
[16]ืกื“ืจ ื”ืคืจืฉื™ื•ืช, ืขืœ ืืชืจ. ื‘'ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืฉืžื•ืืœ' [ืœืขื™ืœ ื”ืข'8], ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ืืžืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจ"ืจ ื”ืขืฉื™ืœ: ื‘ื™ืืจ ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœืื‘ืจื”ื: ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ืžืกื›ืช ืขืจื›ื™ืŸ (ื“ืฃ ื”) ืื“ื ื ืงืจื ื‘ืขืœ ืžื•ื ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ืœื›ืŸ ืฉืืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง 'ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื”'?, ื•ืื‘ืจื”ื ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื•: 'ืืœื”ื™ื ื™ืจืื” ืœื•'ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื”ื•ืจืืช ืฉืขื”.
[17]ื•ื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ื•: ื–ื—"ื ื“ืฃ ืงืกื“; ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ื‘ืŸ ืฉื•ืขื™ื‘ ื‘ื“ืจืฉืชื• ืœื™ื•ื”"ื›, ื‘ืฉื 'ืžื“ืจืฉ ื—ื–"ืœ', ืื‘ืŸ ืฉื•ืขื™ื‘, ืงืจืืงื ืฉืœ"ื’, ื“ืฃ ืฆื‘ ื˜ื•"ื‘; ืจื™ืงืื ื˜ื™, ืขืœ ืืชืจ. ื•ื›"ื› ืจืž"ืข ืžืคืื ื•, ื‘ืกืคืจื• 'ืขืฉืจื” ืžืืžืจื•ืช'ืžืืžืจ ื—ื™ืงื•ืจ ื”ื“ื™ืŸ, ื—"ื‘ ืกื•ืฃ ืค"ื, ื•ืžืืžืจ 'ืื ื›ืœ ื—ื™', ื—"ื’ ืกื™'ืœื‘. ื•ืฆ"ื‘ ืฉื‘ื“ืจืฉืชื• ืœืจ"ื”, ื“ืฃ ืฆ ื˜ื•"ื‘, ื›ืชื‘ ืจ"ื™ ื‘ืŸ ืฉื•ืขื™ื‘ ืฉื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ืจ"ื”! ื“ืขื” ื–ื• ืชื•ืืžืช ืœื”ืคืœื™ื ืขื ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืจืฉ"ื™ ืขืœ ื”ืคืกื•ืง (ื›ื‘, ื™ื“) 'ื•ื™ืงืจื ืื‘ืจื”ื ืฉื-ื”ืžืงื•ื ื”ื”ื•ื ื”'ื™ืจืื” ืืฉืจ ื™ืืžืจ ื”ื™ื•ื...', ืžื‘ื™ื ืจืฉ"ื™ ืžืื’ื“ื”: "ื”'ื™ืจืื” โ€“ ื™ืจืื” ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื–ื• ืœืกืœื•ื— ืœื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ื›ืœ ืฉื ื”ื•ืœื”ืฆื™ืœื ืžืŸ ื”ืคื•ืจืขื ื•ืช, ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ืืžืจ ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื–ื”ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ืื™ื ื‘ื”ืจ ื”'ื™ืจืื” ืืคืจื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง...".
ื•ื ืคืœืื™ื ื”ืžื” ื“ื‘ืจื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืช"ืก ื‘ื‘ื™ืื•ืจื• (ืขื”"ืช ื•ื™ืฆื, ืขืž'ืงื ื˜) ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ 'ื•ืื™ืœื™ ืฆืื ืš ืœื ืื›ืœืชื™'ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžื ื”ื’ ืขืชื™ืง-ื™ื•ืžื™ืŸ ืฉ"ื‘ื™ื•ื ืขืงื™ื“ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ืื›ืœื• ืจืืฉ ืื™ืœ ื–ื›ืจ ืœืขืงื™ื“ืชื•. ืœื›ืŸ ื™ืขืงื‘ ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืœื‘ืŸ ืœื ืœืงื— ื‘ืžืžื•ื ื• ืžืื™ืœื™ ืœื‘ืŸ ืœืงื™ื™ื ืžื ื”ื’ื•, ืžืคื ื™ ื”ื—ืฉื“, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• 'ืื™ืœื™ ืฆืื ืš ืœื ืื›ืœืชื™', ืืคื™ืœื• ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจ"; [ื•ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ืฉื‘ืžืง"ื ื›ืชื‘ ื”ื—ืช"ืก ืฉื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ืชื” ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื›, ืชื•ืจืช ืžืฉื” ื›ืž"ืค, ื•ื‘ื“ืจืฉื•ืชื™ื• ื—"ื’, ืขืž'ืœื].
[18]ื–ืžื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืฉื™ื™ื—ืกื• ื”ืงื“ืžื•ื ื™ื ืœื™ื•ื ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”: ืคืกื—: ืื”ื‘ืช ื™ื”ื•ื ืชืŸ, ื•ื™ืจื, ื“"ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™, ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืจื™"ื, ืขืœ ืืชืจ. ืจืืฉ ื”ืฉื ื”: ืคืกื™ืงืชื ืจื‘ืชื™, ืคืจืง ืž; ื–ื—"ื’, ื“ืฃ ื™ื—ื™ ืข"ื; ืจืขื”"ืž, ืค'ืชืฆื ื“ืฃ ืจืคื‘ ืข"ื‘; ืื‘ื•ืช ื“ืจ"ื  (ื›ืช"ื™), ื”ื•ื‘ื ื‘ืชื•"ืฉ ืกืขื™ืฃ ืงื ื˜, ืคื™ืจื•ืฉ ืจื•ืงื— ืขื”"ืช, ืขืž'ืงืขื—, ื•ื›ืžื” ืžืžืคืจืฉื™ ื”ืชืคืœื” ืœืจ"ื”. ื•ืœืฉื™ื˜ืชื ืžื“ื•ืงื“ืงืช ื ื•ืกื— ืื™ื˜ืœื™ื” ื‘ืจ"ื”: "ื•ืขืงื“ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื™ื•ืืœื–ืจืขื• ืชื–ื›ื•ืจ". ืจื‘ื™ ื“ื•ื“ ื™ื•ืืœ ื•ื™ื™ืก ืงื™ื‘ืฅ ื•ืกื™ื“ืจ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื•ื”ื’ื™ืจืกืื•ืช ืฉื™ื•ื—ืกื• ืœื™ื•ื ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”, ืžื’ื“ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื โ€“ ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉืข"ื, ืขืž'ืฉื™ื—-ืฉื›ื‘; ื•ืจืื” ืขื•ื“ ืฉื•"ืช ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ ืกื™'ื ื-ื ื‘.
[19]ืฆ"ื‘ ืฉืœื ื ื—ื™ืช ืฉืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ืจื•"ื ืกื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื’ื ืœืž"ื“ ืชื—ื•ืžื™ืŸ ื“ืื•ืจื™ื™ืชื, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืจืง ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืฉื‘ืช, ืœืขื•ืžืช ื™ื•"ื˜ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื“ืจื‘ื ืŸ.
[20]ืืจืฅ ื—ืžื“ื”, ื•ื•ื™ืœื ื ืชืจืข"ื’, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื.
[21]ืชืคืืจืช ื™ื”ื•ื ืชืŸ.
[22]ื•ืžืžืฉื™ืš ื”ื—ืช"ืก: "ื‘ื—ื–ืจืชื ืžื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื“ื ืืœื ื”ืžืื›ืœืช, ื•ืืคืฉืจ ืฉื ืฉืื•ื”ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ืื‘ืจื”ื ื•ื™ืฆื—ืง ื•ื”"ืœ ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืขืฉื•ื”ื•, ืื• ื”ืœื™ื›ื•ื”ื• ืคื—ื•ืช ืคื—ื•ืช ืžื“"ื, ืืš ื‘ื‘ื•ืื ืืœ ืžืงื•ื ืžื•ืฉื‘ ื”ื ืขืจื™ื, ื•ืฉื™ื™ืจื” ืฉื—ื ืชื” ื‘ื‘ืงืขื” ื”ื•ื” ื›ืขื™ืจ, ื•ืืœื• ื”ื™ื• ื”ื ืขืจื™ื ืื•ืกืจื™ื ืขืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ื•ื™ืฆื—ืง ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืจืฉืื™ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืขืœื™ื”ื ืืœ ืžื—ื™ืฆืช ื—ื ื™ื™ืชื. ืืš ืžื‘ื•ืืจ ื‘ืขื™ืจื•ื‘ื™ืŸ (ืกื‘ ืข"ื) ืฉื’ื•ื™ ืื™ื ื• ืื•ืกืจ ืฉื“ื™ืจืช ื’ื•ื™ ืœื ืฉืžื ื“ื™ืจื”, ื•ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ื“ืจืžื– ืขื ื”ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื—ืžื•ืจ".
[23]ื•ื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื”ืขืžืง ื“ื‘ืจ, ืคืกื•ืง ื˜, ื•ืฉืœื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื• ืขืจื™ื›ืช ืขืฆื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ื“ื™ืŸ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืชืžื™ื“, ืœืฉื•ื ื• ื”ื•ื‘ื ืœืขื™ืœ ื”ืข'3.
ืžืื™ื“ืš, ืจื‘ื™ ื“ื•ื“ ืœื™ื“ื ืื‘"ื“ ื•ืจ"ืž ืืžืกื˜ืจื“ื, ืžื‘ื™ื ืฉืฉืžืข ืžื—ื›ื ืื—ื“, ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื™ื” ืฉืœืžื™ื, ื•ืคืฉืจ ืฉืืœืชื• 'ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื”'ื”ื•ื: "ืœืคื™ ืฉืืกื•ืจ ืœืฉื—ื•ื˜ ืงื•ื“ื ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื“ืœืชื•ืช ื”ื”ื™ื›ืœ ื•ื“ื™ื™ืงื ืฉื”, ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืฉืืกื•ืจ ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืฉื•ื ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืชืžื™ื“ ืฉืœ ืฉื—ืจ ืฉื ืงืจื‘ ืขื ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ื”ื™ื›ืœ, ืขื™ืจ ื“ื•ื“, ื—ืœืง ื‘ื™ืช ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืืžืกื˜ืจื“ื ืชืข"ื˜, ืกืข'ืจื, ื“ืฃ ืžื” ืข"ื.
[24]ืžืฉืš ื—ื›ืžื”, ืขืœ ืืชืจ.
[25]ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื”ื•ืขืชืงื• ืืฆืœ ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื‘ื•ืœืขืคื™ื” (ื”ืฉื ื™), ืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื, ืื–ืžื™ืจ ืชืฆ"ื“, ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืจื ื“ืฃ ื— ื˜ื•"ื‘.
[26]ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืœืงื—, ื“ืฃ ื›ื” ืข"ื.
[27]ื—ื•ื‘ืจ ืข"ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืŸ ืฉืžื•ืืœ ืขื‘ืืก, ื‘ืŸ ื”ืžืื” ื”ื™"ื‘ ื•ื™ื“ื™ื“ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉื•ืจืจ ืจื™ื”"ืœ, ืžืฆืื• ื”ื™ื” ืžืคืืก ืฉื‘ืžืจื•ืงื•, ืœื™ืžื™ื ืขื ื”ื—ื•ืจื‘ืŸ ื•ื”ืฉืžื“ ืฉืคืงื“ ืืช ืžืจื•ืงื• ืขื‘ืจ ืœืžื–ืจื—, ื•ื‘ืื—ืจื™ืชื• ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืืจ"ืฅ.
[28]ืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื, ื“ืฃ ื— ืข"ื.
[29]ืฉืžื• ืื‘ืจื”ื, ื“ืฃ ืงืขื• ื˜ื•"ื.
[30]ื”ื™ื™ื ื•: ื›ืœ ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ื“ื—ื•ื™ ืžืชื—ื™ืœืชื•, ืฉืœื ื”ื™ืชื” ืœื• ืฉืขื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ื›ืฉืจ, ื•ื ืจืื” ืื—"ื›, ื›ืฉืจ, ืœืคื™ื›ืš ืขืœ ื”ืžืงื“ื™ืฉ ื‘ื”ืžื” ืขื“ ืฉืœื ื ื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื›ืฉื™ื‘ื ื” ืžืงืจื™ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชืŸ, ืจืžื‘"ื, ืคืกื•ืœื™ ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืฉื™ืŸ, ืค"ื’ ื”ื›"ื“.
[31]ืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื, ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืจื, ื“ืฃ ื— ื˜ื•"ื’
[32]ื ื•ืœื“ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ืœื ื, ื ืžืœื˜ ืžืฉื ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชื˜"ื•, ื•ืฉื™ืžืฉ ื‘ืจื‘ื ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืžื” ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื” ืžื•ืจื‘ื™ื” ื•ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”. ืื—"ื› ื—ื–ืจ ืœืคื•ืœื™ืŸ ื•ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื™ืžื™ื• ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืงืจืืงื, ื‘ื” ื ืคื˜ืจ ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืœ"ื•.
[33]ื‘ืจื›ืช ืฉืžื•ืืœ, ืคืคื“"ืž, ืชืž"ื‘, ืค'ื•ื™ืจื, ื“ืฃ ื™ื’ ื˜ื•"ื‘. ื’ื ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื–ื” ืื™ื ื• ืžืกืคืงื•, ืฉื”ืจื™ ืœืฉื™ื˜ืชื• ื’ื ื”ืื™ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืงื“ืฉ ื›ื‘ืจ ื–ืžืŸ ืžื”, ื•ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื–ืืช ื—ื™ื“ืฉ ื›ืžื” ื”ืœื›ื•ืช.
[34]ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” ื‘ื™ืืจ ื“ื•ืŸ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืื‘ืจื‘ื ืืœ (ื›ื‘, ื’): "ื”ื ื” ืœื ื”ืงืฉื” ื’"ื› ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžื”ืžืื›ืœืช ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ืงืฉื” ืžื”ืืฉ ื•ื”ืขืฆื™ื, ืœืคื™ ืฉื“ืจืš ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ืœื”ื•ืœื™ืš ื‘ื“ืจืš ื—ืจื‘ ืื• ืžืื›ืœืช ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืื•ื™ื‘ื™ื ืืŸ ืžืคื ื™ ื—ื™ื•ืช ืจืขื•ืช". ืจื—"ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืขืžื“ ืขืœ ื›ืš, ืœืžื” ืœื ืฉืืœ ืขืœ ื”ืžืื›ืœืช, ื•ื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ื›ืžื” ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืœืžื“ื ื™ื™ื, ืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื, ื“ืฃ ื— ื˜ื•"ื’.
ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจื‘ื™ ืคื ื—ืก ื”ื™ืจืฉืคืจื•ื ื’ ื”ืขื™ืจ ืขืœ ืชืžื™ื”ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง 'ืื™ื” ื”ืฉื”', ืœืžื” ืœื ืขืœื” ื‘ื“ืขืชื• ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ืžื‘ื™ื ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืขืฆื™ื, ื›ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื‘ืžืกื›ืช ืžื ื—ื•ืช (ื“ืฃ ื› ืข"ื‘): ืชื ื™ื ืงืจื‘ืŸ ืžื ื—ื” ืžืœืžื“ ืฉืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืขืฆื™ื, ืชืœืžื™ื“ื• ื”ืจื‘ ืคื ื—ืก ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื•ื•ื™ืœื™ื’ืจ, ืื•ืจ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืžื•ื ืกื™, ื ื™ืกืŸ ืชืฉ"ืข, ืขืž'ืจืžื“, ื•ืจื‘ื™ ืฉืžืื™ ื”ื›ื”ืŸ ื’ืจื•ืก ื™ื™ืฉื‘: ื”ืœื ืื‘ืจื”ื ื ื˜ืœ ืขืžื• ื”ืกื›ื™ืŸ, ืขืœ ื›ืจื—ืš ืฉื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืœืฉื•ื—ื˜ ื‘ืข"ื— (ืื•ืจ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืชืžื•ื– ืชืฉ"ืข, ืขืž'ืจืข).
[35]ื”ืžื•"ืœ ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืœื™ืœืง"ืฉ, ื•ืžืงื•ืจื• ืžื‘ืจ"ืจ ืขืœ ืืชืจ (ืคืจืง ื ื•).
[36]ืžื”ืจื™"ืœ ื“ื™ืกืงื™ืŸ ืขื”"ืช, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉืœ"ื, ืขืœ ืืชืจ, ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ื‘ืฉืžื• ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘"ืจ ื ื™ืกืŸ ืจื™ื™ื˜ื‘ื•ืจื“ -ื“ืจืฉืŸ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ืœื ื, ื‘ืกืคืจื• ื‘ื™ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืจ"ืข, ืค'ื•ื™ืจื ื“ืฃ ื˜ ืขื‘: "ื•ืฉืžืขืชื™ ื‘ืฉื ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืจืฉื›ื‘ื”"ื’ ืžื•"ื” ื™ื”ื•ืฉืข ืœื™ื‘.. ื•ืžื ื•"ื› ืขืœ ื”ืจ ื”ื–ื™ืชื™ื...". ื”ืจื‘ ืจื™ื™ื˜ื‘ื•ืจื“ ืื™ื ื• ืžืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืœืคืชื—ื™ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืืœื ืœื’ืžืจื ื‘ื—ื•ืœื™ืŸ (ื ื” ืข"ื‘) ืฉืจื™ืื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืฆื˜ืžืง "ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื"ืžื—ืžืช ืฉื”ืคื—ื™ื“ ืื“ื ืืช ื”ื‘ื”ืžื” ื‘ืงื•ืœื• (ื›ืŸ ืคื™ืจืฉ ืจืฉ"ื™ ืฉื; ืื• ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืฉืฉื—ื˜ื• ื‘ืคื ื™ื” ื‘ื”ืžื” ืื—ืจืช (ืจืฉ"ื™ ื“ืฃ ืžื‘ ืข"ื‘).
ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจื‘ ืžื‘ืจื™ืกืง ืฆ"ื‘: ื”ืื ื™ืขืœื” ืขืœ ื”ื“ืขืช ืฉืžืขืฆื ื”ื‘ื˜ื” ื‘ืกื›ื™ืŸ ื™ื’ืจื•ื ืœืฆื™ืžื•ืง ื”ืจื™ืื”, ื”ืœื ื”ืค"ืช ืžื™ื™ืจื™ ืฉื”ื‘ืข"ื— ืžื‘ื™ื˜ ื‘ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื” ืื—ืจืช?! ื•ื™ืชื™ืจื” ืžื–ืืช, ืื™ืš ืžืคืจืฉ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ ืฉื—ืฉืฉ 'ืคืกื™ืœืช ื”ืงื•ืจื‘ืŸ'ื”ื•ื ืžื˜ืขื ื”ืฆื˜ืžืงื•ืช ื”ืจื™ืื”, ื”ืื ื”ืงืฉื™ืจื” ื•ื”ืื™ื–ื•ืง ืžื•ื ืข ืžื”ืคื—ื“?! ืืœื ืขืœ ื›ื•ืจื—ืš ืฉื›ื•ื•ื ืช ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ ืฉืžื ื™ื–ืขื–ืข ื•ื™ื ื•ืข ืžืžืงื•ืžื• [ืื• ืฉืžื ื™ืจืฆื” ืœื‘ืจื•ื—].
[37]ืจ'ืฆื‘ื™ ื”ื™ืจืฉ ืคืจื‘ืจ, ื›ืจื ื”ืฆื‘ื™, ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ืชืจ"ืค, ืขืž'ืงื”-ืงื•.
ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจ'ืžืฉื” ืฉื˜ืจื ื‘ื•ืš ืจืื‘"ื“ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืœื ืจืื” ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจื‘ ืคืจื‘ืจ, ื•ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, ืื—ืจื™ ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจื‘ ืžื‘ืจื™ืกืง ืžืกืžื™ืš ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืืกืžื›ืชื ืžืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืกืœื™ื—ื”. ืื•ืœื ืžืขื™ืจ, ืœื ื›ื•ืŸ, ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื‘ืกืœื™ื—ื” ื”ื•ื ืฉืื ื™ืชื ืขื ืข ื™ืคืกื•ืœ ืžืฉื—ื™ื˜ื” ืฉืื™ื ื” ืจืื•ื™ื”, ืื‘ืœ ืœื ืžืคื ื™ ืฆื™ืžื•ืง ื”ืจื™ืื•ืช. ืฆื•ื“ืง ื”ืจื‘ ืฉื˜ืจื ื‘ื•ืš ืฉืื™ืŸ ืžื›ืืŸ ืจืื™ื”, ืืœื ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื”ืคื™ื•ื˜ ื”ื•ื ืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ืžืงืฆืช, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ื‘"ืจ ืขื–ืจื™ืืœ, ืื—ื“ ืžื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ืžืคืจืฉื™ ื”ืคื™ื•ื˜, ืฉื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื: "ืฉื ืชืŸ ื”ืžืื›ืœืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื ื“ื ื”, ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื ื™ืจืื”ื• ื™ืฆื—ืง ื•ื™ืคื—ื“ ื•ื™ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืขืœื™ื• ื”ื™ื” ืœืฉื•ื—ื˜ื• ื•ืฉืžื ื™ืžืืŸ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ", ืขืจื•ื’ืช ื”ื‘ืฉื, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉื›"ื’, ื—"ื’ ืขืž' 331.
[38]ื•ื›ื‘ืจ ืขืžื“ ืขืœ ื›ืš ืจ'ื™ืฆื—ืง ืจื™ื™ื˜ื‘ื•ืจื“.
[39]ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘"ืจ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื”ื•ื™ื›ื’ืœืจื ื˜ืจ ืื‘"ื“ ื–ืืžื•ืฉื˜, ืฉื•"ืช ื–ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื™ืฆื—ืง, ืœื‘ื•ื‘ ืชืงืค"ื‘, ืกื™'ื›ื, ื“ืฃ ื– ื˜ื•"ื’; ืื“ืจ"ืช, ืกื“ืจ ืคืจืฉื™ื•ืช, ืขืœ ืืชืจ.
ืžืคืจืฉื™ ื”ืžืงืจื ื ื—ืœืงื• ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ืžื” ื”ื™ืชื” ืžื˜ืจืช ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืขื ื—ืžื•ืจ, ื™ืฉ ืฉื”ืขืœื• ืฉื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ืขืžื• ืœืกื—ื™ื‘ืช ื”ืขืฆื™ื (ืืข"ื–, ืื‘ืจื‘ื ืืœ, ื•ืจืื” ืื™ื™ืœืช ื”ืฉื—ืจ), ื•ื™ืฉ ืฉืœืžื“ื• ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื [ื•ื”ืžืœื•ื•ื™ื] ืจื›ื‘ื• ืขืœื™ื• (ืžืœื‘ื™"ื). ื•ื”ื ื”, ื’ื ืœืกื•ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ื•"ื˜ ืื™ืŸ ืžืฆื•ื•ื™ื ืขืœ ืฉื‘ื™ืช ื‘ื”ืžืชื•, ืžื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื™ื•ื”"ื› ืžืฆื•ื•ื” ื›ืžื• ื‘ืฉื‘ืช.
[40]ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื“ื™ืŸ ื›ื”"ื’, ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช: ื‘ืกืœื™ื—ื•ืช ืœืฆื•ื ื’ื“ืœื™ื” (ืกืœื™ื—ื” ื ื‘): "ืขื˜ืจื• ื‘ืขืฆื™ื ื•ืืฉื•, ื•ื ื–ืจ ืืœืงื™ื• ืขืœ ืจืืฉื•", ื•ืคื™ืจืฉื• ื”ืžืคืจืฉื™ื ืฉื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื“ื™ืŸ ื›ื›ื”"ื’, ืฉื›ืŸ ื‘ื›ื”ืŸ ื”ื“ื™ื•ื˜ ื›ืชื•ื‘ (ื•ื™ืงืจื ื›ื, ื™ื‘) 'ื›ื™ ื ืจ ืฉืžืŸ ืžืฉื—ืช ืืœืงื™ื• ืขืžื•'. ื•ื‘ืคื™ื•ื˜ ืœืฉื—ืจื™ืช ืฉืœ ื™ื•ื ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ ืจ"ื”, ื“"ื” 'ืืฉืจ ืžื™'ื›ืชื•ื‘: "ื•ืœืงื— ืืช ื”ืžืื›ืœืช ืœืฉื—ื˜ื• ื‘ื—ืœื—ืœื”, ื•ื›ื›ื”ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืžื ื—ื” ื•ื‘ืœื•ืœื”". ื•ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื‘ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ืจื‘ื” (ืžื•, ื”) ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื‘ื™ื ื• ื›ื”"ื’ ื”ื™ื”, ื•ื›ื” ื‘ื™ืœืง"ืฉ ืคืจืฉืช ืœืš, ืจืžื– ืกื’, ื•ื‘ื™ืœืงื•"ืฉ (ืฉื”"ืฉ ืกื™'ืชืชืงืคื—): ืื‘ืจื”ื ื ืขืฉื” ื›ื”"ื’ ืชืžื•ืจืช ืฉื ื‘ืŸ ื ื—.
ืจื‘ื™ ืžืื™ืจ ืฉืžื—ื” ื”ื›ื”ืŸ ืžื“ื•ื•ื™ื ืกืง ื—ื™ื“ืฉ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื›ื”"ื’ ืจืง ื‘ืขืช ื”ืขืœืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื•ืกื‘ืจืชื• ืžืจื’ืฉืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ: "ืœืคื™ ืฉื‘ืขืช ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžืงืจื™ื‘ ื‘ื ื• ืœื”ืฉื™"ืช, ื”ื™ื” ืื– ื”ืชื’ืœื•ืช ืืœื•ืงื™ืช ื›ืžื• ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื›ื”"ื’ ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืœืคื ื™ ื•ืœืคื ื™ื. ืœืื•ืจ ื”ืืžื•ืจ ื”ื•ื ืžื‘ืืจ ื‘ื˜ื•"ื˜ ืืช ื›ืคืœ ื”ืœืฉื•ืŸ: 'ื•ื™ืงืจื ืžืœืืš ื”ืฉื ืืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืฉื ื™ืช ืžืŸ ื”ืฉืžื™ื', ื”ื•ืื™ืœ ื•ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื™ื•ื”"ื› ื ืืžืจ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ (ื™ื•ืžื ื, ื”) ืฉื’ื ืžืœืื›ื™ื ืืกื•ืจ ืœื”ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื”ืœ ืžื•ืขื“, ืœื›ืŸ ื”ืžืœืืš ืงืจื ืœื• "ืžืŸ ื”ืฉืžื™ื", ืฉื”ืจื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ืฉืช ืœื”ืจ", ืžืฉืš ื—ื›ืžื”, ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช, ื›ื, ื™ื–.
[41]ืื™ื ื• ื‘ืจื•ืจ ื”ืื ืงื˜ืข ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื”ืžืฉืš ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื˜"ื–, ืื• ืฉืžื ื”ื•ืกืคื•ืช ื”ืžื—ื‘ืจ ืœืคื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•.
[42]ืื•ืจ ืชื•ืจื”, ืœืจื‘ื™ ืื•ืจื™ ืงืืœืžื™ื™ืจ ืื‘"ื“ ืคืืœื ืื”, ื‘ืŸ ื‘ืชื• ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง ืœืžื”ืจืฉ"ื, ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืŸ ืชืœ"ื‘, ืค'ื•ื™ืจื. ืฆื•ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘'ืœืงื˜ ื™ื•ืกืฃ'ืœืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื’ื™ื ืฆื‘ื•ืจื’ ืื‘"ื“ ื‘ืจื™ืกืง, ืฉืืœื•ื ื™ืงื™ ืชืก"ื˜, ืขืจืš ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืกืข'ื™ื˜; ืกืคืจ ื”ืœื™ืงื•ื˜ื™ื ืœืจื‘ื™ ื™ื—ื™ืืœ ื”ืœืคืจื™ืŸ ืื‘"ื“ ืžื™ื ืกืง, ื—"ื ืขืž'ื˜ื•. ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืฉื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืกืคืจ ื”ืืฉืœ (ืฉืฆื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืœืขื™ืœ ื”ืข'4), ื•ืœื ืžืฆืืชื™ื• ืฉื.
ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื“ื™ืŸ ื›ื”ืŸ ื‘ืขืœืช ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”, ืจืื” ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื ืคืœืื™ื ื‘'ืขืฉืจื” ืžืืžืจื•ืช', ืžืืžืจ ื—ืงื•ืจ ื“ื™ืŸ, ื—"ื‘ ืค"ื, ื”ื•ื‘ื ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืฉืžื•ืืœ (ืงืื™ื™ื“ื ื•ื‘ืจ) ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื ื•ืคืš ืžืฉืœื•.
[43]ื–ื™ืช ืจืขื ืŸ, ื•ื™ื ื™ืฆื™ื” ืชืง"ื’, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื, ื“ืฃ ื™ื‘ ื˜ื•"ื‘.
[44]ืื•ืœื ืชื•ืก'ื—ื•ืœืง ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, ื•ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ื”ื”ื™ืชืจ ื”ื•ื ืจืง ืœื›ื”"ื’. ื•ืจืื” ืจื™ื˜ื‘"ื ื•ืžืจื•ืžื™ ื”ืฉื“ื” ืฉื; ื•ืžืงื•ืจ ื‘ืจื•ืš (ื’ื™ื ืฆื‘ื•ืจื’) ืกื™'ื” ื“ืฃ ื™ื’ ื˜ื•"ื.
[45]ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ื”ืจื“"ืœ ืœืคืจืงื™ ื“ืจ"ื, ืค'ืœื ืก"ืง ืžื“.
ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืจืค"ื• ืคืจืกื ืจ'ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืคืจื ืงืœ ืžืคืื‘ื™ืื ื™ืฅ ืฉืžื•ืขื” ืฉืฉืžืข ื‘ืฉื ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืžื“ื•ื•ื™ื ืกืง, ื‘ื™ืื•ืจ ืœืคืจืงื™ ื“ืจ"ื ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื›ื”"ื’, ื•ืฉืืœ ื”ืจื‘: ืœืžื” ื›ื›ื”"ื’, ืžื” ืื™ื›ืคืช ืœื™ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืœื• ื“ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื›ื”ืŸ ื”ื“ื™ื•ื˜, ืืœื โ€“ื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื”ืจื‘ ืžื“ื•ื•ื™ื ืกืง- ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืขื ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”, ืืช ืžื›ืชื‘ื• ื–ื” ืคืจืกื ื—ื•ื‘ืจืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืชื•ืจื ื™ ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื 'ืงื•ืœ ืชื•ืจื”'ืฉื™ืฆื ืœืื•ืจ ื‘ืขื™ืจื• 'ืคืื‘ื™ืื ื™ืฅ', ืžืชื—ืช ืœืงื• ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืจื‘ ืžืคืื‘ื™ืื ื™ืฅ, ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ืงื“ืžื•ื”ื• ื”ืž"ื ื•ืขื•ื“, ืงื•ืœ ืชื•ืจื” -ืคืื‘ื™ืื ื™ืฅ, ืฉื ื” ื'ื—ื•'ื, ืกื™'ื™ื. [ืื ื™ ืžื ื™ื— ืฉื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืœื’ืื•ืŸ ื‘ืขืœ ืฆืคืข"ื , ื•ืœื ืœื‘ืขืœ ืžืฉืš ื—ื›ืžื”, ื›ืคื™ ืฉืจืฉืžื• ื‘'ืžืื•ืจื•ืช ื“ืฃ ื”ื™ื•ืžื™', ื’ืœื™ื•ืŸ 239 (ืžื ื—ื•ืช ืคื‘).
[46]ืฉืžื• ืื‘ืจื”ื, ื“ืฃ ืงืขื” ื˜ื•"ื“.
[47]ื“ืจืฉื•ืช ื—ืช"ืก, ื—"ื ื“ืฃ ื— ื˜ื•"ื.
[48]ืžืฉื›ื™ืœ ืœื“ื•ื“, ื•ื™ื ื™ืฆื™ืื” ืชืงื›"ื, ื“ืฃ ื™ื˜ ื˜ื•"ื‘.
[49]ืขื•ื“ ืžืฆืขื™ืจื•ืชื• ื™ืฆื ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืคืขืžื™ื ืœืืจืฆื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืฆืคืช ื•ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ืชืก"ื—-ืช"ืฅ. ื‘ื—ื–ื•ืจ, ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืฆืคืช ื‘ื” ื›ื™ื”ืŸ ื›ืจื‘ ื•ืจ"ืž. ื‘-ืชืค"ื— ื ืฉืœื— ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืขืจื™ ื”ื’ื•ืœื”, ื•ืื—"ื› ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืืจ"ืฅ. ื‘-ืชืฆ"ื– ื—ื–ืจ ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ื”ืชืžื ื” ื›ื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื“ืžืฆื ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื“ื™ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจื‘ 'ืื“ืžืช ืงื“ืฉ'. ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ืืœื• ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœื“ืคื•ืกย  ืืช ืกืคืจื• 'ื—ื•ื˜ ื”ืžืฉื•ืœืฉ'ื‘ื• ืงื™ื‘ืฅ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื“ืจื•ืฉื™ื ืฉื“ืจืฉ ื‘ื“ืจืš ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ื™ื•ืชื™ื•, ื•ืฉืœืคืขืžื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืงื•ื ื•ื”ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ื ื“ืจืฉื•, ื ืคื˜ืจ ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืงื™"ื‘ ืœืขืจืš.
[50]ืจ'ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื“ื™ื•ื•ืืŸ, ื—ื•ื˜ ื”ืžืฉื•ืœืฉ, ืงื•ืฉื˜ื ืชืฆ"ื˜, ื•ืžืกื™ื™ื: "ื•ืœืขืชื•ืช ื›ืืœ ืœื ืžืฆืืชื™ ื“ื‘ืจ ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘".
[51]ืจืื” ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื•ืคืกืงื™ ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜ ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื, ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืขืž'ื›.
[52]ืจ'ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืžื˜ืจืื ื™, ืฆืคื ืช ืคืขื ื—, ื•ื ื™ืฆื™ื” ืช"ื—, ื•ื™ืจื ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืฉืœื™ืฉื™.
[53]ืžื›ื•ื ื” ื’ื ืจ'ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื–ืงืŸ, ืื‘ื™ื• ืจ'ื™ืขืงื‘ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืŸ ื‘ืชื• ืฉืœ ืžื”ืจ"ื™ ื‘ื™ืจื‘ (ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ). ื ื•ืœื“ ื›ื ืจืื” ื‘ืฆืคืช ื‘ืฉื ืช ืฉ"ืž ืœืขืจืš, ื•ื”ื™ื” ืชืœืžื™ื“ ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง ืœืžื”ืจื™"ื˜. ืœื™ืžื™ื ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ื” ื”ืจื‘ื™ืฅ ืชื•ืจื”. ืžืฉื ืขื‘ืจ ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ื” ื ืคื˜ืจ ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืž"ื”.
ืจืง ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื“"ื ืžืฆืื ื• ืฉืจื—"ื ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืกืžืš, ื”ื—ื™ื“"ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉืžื–ื›ื™ืจื• ืžื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืœืชืืจื• 'ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืžื•ืกืžืš', ืจืื” ืืฆืœ ื”ืจื‘ ืฉืœืžื” ืืœื™ืขื–ืจ ืžืจื’ืœื™ืช, ืžืจื ืŸ ื•ืจื‘ื ืŸ, ืžืข'ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื, ืขืž'ืคื“, ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืœืฆื™ื•ืŸ ื ื•ืกืฃ: ืจืืฉ ื“ื•ื“ ื‘ืคืจืฉืชื ื• [ืฆื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืœืงืžืŸ ื”ืข'46]. ื”ื—ื™ื“"ื ื”ื•ื ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืœื›ืš, ื•ืœื ืžืฆืื ื• ืืกืžื›ืชื” ืื—ืจืช. ื“ื•ืžื” ืขืœื™, ืฉื ืกืžืš ืžืื‘ื™ื• ืจ'ื™ืขืงื‘ ืฉื ืกืžืš ืžืจื‘ื™ ื™ืขืงื‘ ื‘ื™ ืจื‘ ื”ืฉื ื™, ื ื›ื“ื• ืฉืœ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื”ืกืžื™ื›ื”
[54]ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื˜ื‘ืจื™ื”, ืขืœื™ื• ื›ืชื‘ ื”ื—ื™ื“"ื: "ื›ื™ ืจื‘ื• ื ื•ืจืื•ืชื™ื• ื•ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื• ื•ืงื“ื•ืฉืชื• ื›ืื—ื“ ืžืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื".
[55]ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืฉืืช ื”ืงื•ืฉื™ื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืžื•ืกืžืš ืžืจื‘ื• ื”ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜, ื•ื“"ื– ื ืขืœื ืžืขื™ื ื™ ื ื›ื“ื• ืจื—"ื (ื”ืฉื ื™).
[56]ืจื—"ื ื›ื•ืชื‘ "ืžื”ืจ"ื ื’ืœืื ื˜ื™", ื•ื”ื ื” ื”ืœื ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืฉื: ื”ืกื‘ื, ืจ'ืžืจื“ื›ื™ ื’ืœืื ื˜ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ืจื‘ื” ืฉืœ ืฆืคืช, ื•ื”ื ื›ื“ ื”ืจืืฉืœ"ืฆ โ€“ื”ื™ื“ื•ืข ื‘ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ื• ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืžื’"ืŸ, ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืฉื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืœื”ืจื‘ ื”ืžื’"ืŸ, ื‘ืคืจื˜ ืฉื‘ืžืง"ื ืžื‘ื™ื ืจื—"ื ืื™ืžืจื•ืช ืฉืฉืžืข ืžืคื™ื•. ื‘ืฆืขื™ืจื•ืชื• ืขืงืจ ืจ'ื—ื™ื™ื ืžื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืฉื ืœืžื“ ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช 'ื‘ื™ืช ื™ืขืงื‘', ื‘ื” ืฉื™ืžืฉ ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืžื’"ืŸ ื›ืจืืฉ ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื”, ืฉื ืœืžื“ ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื•ืชื ืขื ื”ืจื‘ ืคืจ"ื—.
[57]ื›ืžื” ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื•ื ื• ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื: ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืคื™ืฉืจ, ืจืื‘"ื“ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืื‘ืŸ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืขื”"ืช, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉืก"ื‘, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื; ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจื‘ื™ ืฉืžืื™ ื’ืจืืก, ืžื•"ืฅ ืžื—ื–ื™ืงื™ ื”ื“ืช, ืืžืจื™ ืฉืžืื™, ืขืž'ืกื’.
[58]ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžื ืœื›ืš ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื‘ื™ืข ืœืžืฉื ื” ื‘ืคืจืง ืืœื• ื”ืŸ ื”ืœื•ืงื™ืŸ (ืžื›ื•ืช ื›ื‘ ืข"ื‘): ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื• ืœื”ืœืงื•ืชื•, ื•ืžื—ืช ื›ืื‘ ื”ืžืœืงื•ืช ื ืชื‘ื–ื” ื”ืžื•ืœืงื” ืข"ื™ ืฉื™ืฆืื” ืœื• ืฆื•ืื” ืื• ืžื™ ืจื’ืœื™ื, ื”ืจื™ ืฉื ืชื‘ื–ื” ื‘ื›ืš ื•ื ืคื˜ืจ ืžื™ืชืจ ื”ืžืœืงื•ืช.
[59]ืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื, ืค'ื•ื™ืจื ื“ืฃ ื— ื˜ื•"ื’.
ื”ืจื‘ ื—ื™ื“"ื ื‘ืกืคืจื• 'ืจืืฉ ื“ื•ื“'ืžื‘ื™ืื• ื•ืžืžืฉื™ืš ืขืœ ืคื™ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื“ืจื•ืฉ. ื‘ื”ืงื“ื ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืืจ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื‘ืจื›ื” ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืจื—ืžื™ื ืฉื™ืชืงื‘ืœ ื”ืื™ืœ ืชื—ืช ื‘ื ื•, ื‘ืงืฉื” ื–ื• ืžืงื‘ืœืช ื˜ืขื ืœืฉื‘ื— ื•ืœืคื™ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืžื’"ืŸย  ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ืขื•ืœื” ืขืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžื–ื‘ื—, ื•ืื™ืœื• ื”ืื™ืœ ืฉื—ื˜ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœืžื˜ื” ื›ื“ื™ื ื•, ื”ืจื™ ืฉืœื ืžื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืžืžืฉ, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ. ื•ื›ืœ ื–ื” ืžืจื•ืžื– ื‘ืœืฉื•ื ื”ืคืกื•ืง: 'ื•ื™ืขืœื”ื• ืœืขื•ืœื” ืชื—ืช ื‘ื ื•'ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉื‘ื ื• ื”ื™ื” ืœืžืขืœื” ื•ืื™ืœื• ื”ืื™ืœ, ืœืžื˜ื”, ื‘ื™ืจืš ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื•ื ื™ืฆื™ื” ืชืงื›"ื’, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื.
[60]ืจ'ื—ื™ื™ื ืื‘ื•ืœืขืคื™ื”, ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืœืงื—, ืื–ืžื™ืจ ืช"ืฆ, ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืจื, ื“ืฃ ื›ื— ืกื•ืฃ ืข"ื. ื‘ืขืฅ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื“ื™ื™ืง ืจื—"ื ืžืœืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืคืกื•ืงื™ื ืฉื›ืŸ ื ืฆื˜ื•ื•ื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื”ืขืœื•ืชื• ื—ื™.
ื•ื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ื• ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉืืฆืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื™ื” ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžืงืจื 'ื•ื”ืขืœื”ื• ืฉื ืœืขื•ืœื”', ืจื‘ื™ ืฉืžื•ืืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื™ืœืžืŸ ืื‘"ื“ ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ืื•ืจ ื”ื™ืฉืจ, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉืœ"ื–, ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื ืฉื, ื•ื”ื˜ืขื™ื ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื”ื•ืื™ืœ ื•ื”ืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ ื”ื™ื” ืขืœ ื”ื”ืขืœืื” ื•ืœื ืขืœ ื”ืฉื—ื™ื˜ื”, ืœื›ืŸ ืขื ื”ื”ืขืœืื” ื›ื‘ืจ ืงื™ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืฆื•ื•ื”.
[61]ื’ื ืื—ืจื™ ื›ื”ื•ื ืชื•, ื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœื’ื•ืจ ืฉื ืขื“ ืฉืœื”ื™ ืฉื ืช ืชืจืข"ื, ืขืช ืขืœื” ืฆืคืชื”.
[62]ื ื“ืคืก ืžื›ืช"ื™ ื‘ืกืคืจ ื–ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืœืจื‘ื™ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื•ื˜ื ืจ, ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉืž"ื“, ืขืž'ืชืจื ื’.
[63]ื‘ื™ืจืš ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื•ื ื™ืฆื™ื” ืชืงื›"ื’, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื ื“ืฃ ื™ื’ ืข"ื‘.
[64]ื“ืจืฉื•ืช ื—ืช"ืก, ื—"ื ื“ืฃ ืงื˜ ืข"ื. ื—ืช"ืก ืžืžืฉื™ืš ืœื—ื“ืฉ ืฉืœื ืจืง ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ื ืคื˜ืจ ืžื”ืคืฉื˜ ืืœื ื’ื ื”ืื™ืœ ืฉื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืชืžื•ืจืชื•, ืœื ืคืฉื˜ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืืช ืขื•ืจื•.
ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืช"ืก, ื›ื‘ืจ ื ืคืชื— ื‘ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื: ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜ -ืคืืจื” ืฉืœ ืฆืคืช- ื—ื™ื“ืฉ ืฉื›ืœ ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืขืœืืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ื™ื• ืขืœ ื”ืื™ืœ, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจื›ื” ืฉื‘ื™ืจืš ืขืœ ืฉื—ื™ื˜ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื—ืœื” ืชื™ื›ืฃ ืขืœ ื”ืื™ืœ, ื•ื’ื ื”ืชื ื”ื’ ืขื ื”ืื™ืœ ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžืชื ื”ื’ ืขื ื™ืฆื—ืง, ื•ื›ืžื• ืฉื™ืฆื—ืง ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืคื•ืฉื˜ ืืช ืขื•ืจื• ืฉื”ืจื™ ืขื•ืจื• ื›ื‘ืฉืจื•, ื›ืŸ ื ื”ื’ ืขื ื”ืื™ืœ, ื•ืœื›ืŸ โ€“ ืžืกื™ื™ื ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜- ืžืชื‘ื˜ื ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื‘ืœืฉื•ืŸ 'ื•ื™ืขืœื”ื• ืœืขื•ืœื” ืชื—ืช ื‘ื ื•': "ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื ื•, ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ื˜ืขื•ืŸ ื”ืคืฉื˜ ื•ื ื™ืชื•ื—, ืœื›ืš ื”ืชืคืœืœ ื•ืืžืจ ื”'ื™ืจืื”, ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ืžืื—ืจ ื“ืงืžื™ ืฉืžื™ื ื’ืœื™ื ืฉืžื” ืฉื™ืืžืจ ื”ื™ื•ื, ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืขืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง ืืœื ืขืœ ืชืžื•ืจืชื•, ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ืื™ืœ ื”ืžื–ื•ืžืŸ ืœื• ืžื•'ื™ืžื™ ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช, ืžืขืœื” ืขืœื™ื• ืฉื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื ืืžืจ ื‘ื™ืฆื—ืง, ืœืฉื ืจื™ื—, ืœืฉื ื ื™ื—ื•ื—, ื•ื”ืงื“ืฉืชื• ืœืฉืžื™ื ื•ื‘ืจื›ืช ื”ื–ื‘ื—, ื›ืื™ืœื• ื ืืžืจ ืขืœ ื”ืื™ืœ, ื•ื‘ื–ื• ื”'ื™ืจืื” ื•ื™ืจืฆื” ืœืคื ื™ื•, ื›ื™ ื›ืœ ืœื‘ื‘ื•ืช ื“ื•ืจืฉ ื”', ื•ื‘ืœื™ื‘ื• ืจืฆื•ื™ ื”ืจื™ ื”ื•ื ื›ืื™ืœื• ื ื–ื‘ื—", ืฆืคื ืช ืคืขื ื—, ื•ื ืฆื™ื” ืช"ื—, ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืจื ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืฉืœื™ืฉื™.
ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืฉืžื”ืจื™"ื˜ ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืืช ื—ื™ื“ื•ืฉื• ืžืืช ืจื‘ื™ ืžืฉื” ืืœืฉื™ืš [ -ืฉื "ื’] ืฉื”ืืจื™ืš ื‘ื ื™ื“ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื“ื™ื“ื• "ืื™ืŸ ืกืคืง"ืฉื”ืื™ืœ ืฉื ื‘ืจื ืžืขืจื‘ ืฉื‘ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืžืฉื•ืช, ื”ื™ื” ื›ื•ืœื• ื˜ื”ื•ืจ ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ื—ืœืงื™ื ื”ืคื—ื•ืชื™ื ืฉืœื•, "ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืžืขืœ ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืžืื™ื›ื•ืชืŸ", ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืื™ืœ ืขื ืขื•ืจื•: "ื•ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืจ ืžื”ืื™ืœ ื”ื”ื•ื, ืฉื”ื•ืงืจื‘ ื’ื ื›ื ื’ื“ ืขื•ืจื• [ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื—ืง] โ€“ ื›ื™ ื’ื ื‘ื• ื”ื™ื” ืื™ื›ื•ืช ื›ื ื•ื“ืข- ื ื™ืชืŸ ื›ื•ื— ื•ื–ื™ืจื•ื– ืžืชื ื™ื ืœืžืœืืš ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื•ื ืืœื™ื”ื• ืœืชืงืŸ ืืฉืจ ืžืฉื›ื• ืขื•ืจ ืขืจืœืชื ื‘ื˜ืžืื ืžื™ืœืชื", ืชื•ืจืช ืžืฉื” โ€“ ืืœืฉื™ืš, ื›ื‘, ื™ื’. [ืขืœ ื”ืขืจืฆืช ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜ ื›ืœืคื™ ื”ืืœืฉื™ืš, ืจืื” ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื•ืคืกืงื™ ืžื”ืจื™"ื˜ ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื, ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉืœ"ื— ืขืž'ื›ื‘-ื›ื“].
[65]ื”ืขืžืง ื“ื‘ืจ, ืขืœ ืืชืจ. ื’ื ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืคืืœืื’'ื™ ื›ื•ืชื‘ ื‘ืคืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ืฉืื™ืœื•ืœื™ ืฉื—ื˜ื•, ื”ื™ื” ืชื™ื›ืฃ ืคื•ืฉื˜ ืืช ืขื•ืจื•, ืฉืžื• ืื‘ืจื”ื, ื“ืฃ ืงืขื’ ื˜ื•"ื’.
[66]ื™ื“ื™ื“ื™ ืจื‘ื™ ืžืฉื” ืฉืœืืžื™ื•ืง ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื—ืช"ืก ืฉืœื ื™ื•ืกืชืจ ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื”ื ืืœื•, ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื ื—ืœืงื• ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื ืื ืงื•ื“ื ืž"ืช ื”ื™ื” ืขื•ืœื” ื˜ืขื•ื ื” ื”ืคืฉื˜, ืื•ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ื—ืช"ืก, ื‘ืจื•ืงืœื™ืŸ ืชืฉืก"ื“, ืขืž'ืจืœ.
[67]ื•ื–ื›ื” ืœื›ื•ื™ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ืžื”ืจืฉ"ืœ ื‘ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื• ืœืจืฉ"ื™ ืขื”"ืช ืคืจืฉืช ื™ืชืจื• ื“"ื” ื•ื–ื‘ื—ืช ืขืœื™ื•.
[68]ื”ืจ ืฆื‘ื™ย  ืขื”"ืช, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉื "ื•, ืขืœ ืืชืจ, ื•ื‘ืจืืฉ ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืงืจื. ื•ื™ืฉ ืœืขื™ื™ืŸ ืžื”ืจื™"ืœ ื“ื™ืกืงื™ืŸ, ื•ื™ืงืจื.
[69]ื›ืกืฃ ื ื‘ื—ืจ, ืืžืกื˜ืจื“ื ืชืข"ื‘, ื“ืฃ ื— ื˜ื•"ื.
ื™ืฉื ื” ื—ื™ื“ื” ืฉื”ืœื‘ื™ืฉื• ืื•ืชื” ืขืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ืžืฆื™ืื• ืžื“ืจืฉ 'ืคืœื™ืื”'ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ืืžืจ ื‘ืฉืขืช ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื”: ืื™ื ื™ ื“ื•ืื’ ืขืœ ืื™ื‘ื•ื“ ื™ืžื™ื•, ืื‘ืœ ืื ื™ ื“ื•ืื’ ืขืœ ืื™ื‘ื•ื“ ื“ืžื™ื•, ืžื” ืคืฉืจ ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ, ื•ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืื“ื™ืจ ืืช ืจื‘ื• ื”ืœื‘ื™ืฉ ืขืœื™ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ืคืœืคื•ืœ, ื‘ื”ืงื“ื ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ืฉื“ื ืขื•ืœื” ืฉื ืชืขืจื‘ ืขื ื“ื ื‘ื›ื•ืจ, ื™ืฉืคืš. ื•ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ืจื™ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื›ื•ืจ, ื•ื”ื™ื” ื’ื ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื‘ืงื“ื•ืฉืช ืขื•ืœื”, ื”ืจื™ ื›ืืŸ ืชืขืจื•ื‘ืช ืฉืœ ื“ื ืขื•ืœื” ื•ื‘ื›ื•ืจ, ื•ืœื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืื‘ืจื”ื ื“ื•ืื’ ืขืœ ืื™ื‘ื•ื“ ื“ืžื™ื•, ื›ืŸ ืžืกื•ืคืจ ืขืœ ื”ืžืœื‘ื™"ื ืฉื ืฉืืœ ืžืืช ืจื‘ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ื™ืขืงื‘ ืคืจื™ื“ืžืŸ, ืื“ืžื•"ืจ ืžืกืื“ื™ื’ื•ืจื, ื•ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื• ื›ืš, ืื™ืœื ื ื“ื—ื™ื™ (ืจื™ืžื ื•ื‘), ืขืž' 18; ืชืคืืจืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ืกืข'ืงืœื•, ืฆื•ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉื•"ืช ืฉื‘ื™ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ, ืกื™'ืœื“.ย  ื•ืื™ืœื• ื‘ืกืคืจ 'ื”ืฉื ืืงืจื'ืฉื™ืฆื ืœืื•ืจ ื‘ืขื™ืœื•ื ืฉื, ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืกื›ืžื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื—ื›ืžื™ ื’ืœื™ืฆื™ื”, ื›ื•ืชื‘ ืฉื”ืžืœื‘ื™"ื ืฉืืœ ืืช ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืงื•ืกื•ื‘ืจ, ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉื•ื ื”, ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื™ืฉ ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื–ืจื™ืงืช ื”ื“ื ืฉืœ ื‘ื›ื•ืจ ืฉื”ื™ื ืจืง ื‘ืžืชื ื” ืื—ืช, ื•ืื™ืœื• ื“ื ื”ืขื•ืœื” ื ื–ืจืง ื‘ืฉืชื™ ืžืชื ื•ืช, ื•ืขืœ ื”ืœื›ื” ื–ื• ื”ืกืชืคืง ืื‘ืจื”ื ื”ืื™ืš ืœื ื”ื•ื’, ื”ืฉื ืืงืจื, ื‘ื™ืœื’ื•ืจื™ื™ ืชืจืฆ"ื’, ื“ืฃ ื›ื— ื˜ื•"ื“. ื‘ืกืคืจ ื—ื‘ืœ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ืœืจ'ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ืœื™ืคืงื™ืŸ, ื™ื•ื”ื ืกื‘ื•ืจื’ ืชืจืฆ"ื“, ืขืž' 154 ืฉื”ืžืœื‘ื™ื ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ืคืฉืจ ื”ืžื“ืจืฉ ืœืžื”ืจ"ืฉ ืžืœื™ื•ื‘ืื•ื•ื™ื˜ืฉ.
ื›ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ ืจื‘ื™ ืืœื™ืขื–ืจ ืงืจื™ื™ื ืจ ืžื—ื›ืžื™ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื‘ื‘ื™ืื•ืจื• ืœืžืกื›ืช ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื, ื‘ืฉื ื—ื›ื ืื—ื“, ื—ื™ืœ ื“ืžืฉืง, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืจืก"ื’, ื“ืฃ ื› ืข"ื‘; ืžืื™ื“ืš ืจื‘ื™ ื ืชืŸ ื ื˜ืข ืื•ืœืขื‘ืกืงื™ [ื–ื™ื˜ื•ืžืจ, ืชืจืž"ื-ืžื•ืกืงื‘ื” ืชืฉื›"ื–] ืจื‘ื” ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืœ ืžื•ืกืงื‘ื”, ื‘ืฉื ื”ืื“ืžื•"ืจ ืžืงืืคื•ืกื˜, ืžืื•ืจื•ืช ื ืชืŸ, ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉื "ื—, ืขืž'ืขื“. ื”ืจื‘ ืื•ืจื™ ืœื ื’ืจ, ืื•ืจ ื”ื—ื’ื™ื, ืขืž' 64. ื—ื‘ืœ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ืฆื•ื™ื™ืŸ ืืฆืœ ืจ'ื™ืฆื—ืง ืงื•ืกื•ื‘ืกืงื™, ืฉื‘ืช ื•ืžื•ืขื“, ืขืž'ืขื‘
[70]ืฉื ื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื, ื•ื™ื ืฆื™ื” ืชื "ื’, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื, ื“ืฃ ื™ื– ื˜ื•"ื“.
[71]ืฉืคืชื™ ืฆื“ื™ืง, ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืฉื˜"ื–, ืขืž'ืกื; ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจื‘ื™ ืฆื‘ื™ ืจื•ื˜ื‘ืจื’, ืจืืฉ ื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช 'ื‘ื™ืช-ืžืื™ืจ' (ื‘ื ื™ ื‘ืจืง), ืœืžื™ืกื‘ืจ ืงืจืื™, ืขืž'ืข.
[72]ื”ืจื‘ ืคื ื—ืก ื—ื•ื“ืจื•ื‘ ืžื˜ื•ืจื ื ื‘ื”ื™ื•ืชื• ื‘ื•ื•ืืจืฉื ืฉืžืข ืžืืช ื“ื•ื“ื• ื‘ืขืœ ื”'ืฉืคืช ืืžืช'ืฉื”ืงืฉื” ืงื•ืฉื™ื ื–ื•: "ืืžืื™ ืœื ืœืงื— ืขืžื• ืื‘ืจื”ื ืžืœื—", ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก ื–ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืคื ื—ืก [ื ืกืคื— ืœืกืคืจ ืืžืจื™ ืคื ื—ืก (ืงื•ืจื™ืฅ), ืชืฉืž"ื—], ืขืž'ื—. ืจ'ืคื ื—ืก ืžื™ื™ืฉื‘ื• ืขืœ ืคื™ ื“ืจื•ืฉ, ื—ื‘ืœ ืฉืœื ื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืค"ื!
[73]ื•ืจืื” ื”ืขืจืช ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจ'ืฉืื•ืœ ืžืฉื” ื–ื™ืœื‘ืจืžืŸ ืื‘"ื“ ื•ื™ืขืจืฉื•ื‘ ืฉื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืกืคืจ, ืขืž'ืงืคื–.
[74]ื•ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืจื•ืงื— ืขื”"ืช, ืฉื‘ื™ืืจ ืืช ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื 'ื•ื™ืงื ื•ื™ืœืš ืืœ ื”ืžืงื•ื': "ื•ืžืœืžื“ื• ืงืฆืช ืงืจื‘ื ื•ืช ืœื”ืงืจื™ื‘ื ื•ื›ืžื” ืžืœื— ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืคืจ ื•ืื™ืœ", ืจื•ืงื— ืขื”"ืช, ืขืž'ืงืขื–. ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืฉืืœืชื™ืืœ, ืžื—ื›ืžื™ ืฉืืœื•ื ื™ืงื™, ืžืฆื ืจืžื– ืœืžืœื—: ื”ืžื–ื‘ื— ืžืžืขืœ ืœืขืฆื™ื, ืก"ืช ืžืœื—, ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืฉืืœื•ื ื™ืงื™ ืชืจื™"ื‘, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื.
ื•ืžืฆืืชื™ ืจืžื– ืฉืื‘ืจื”ื ืœืงื— ืขืžื• ืžืœื—. ื‘ืžื“ืจืฉ ื‘ืžื“ื‘"ืจ (ื™ื–, ื‘) ืžื•ื‘ื ืกื“ืจ ื”ืขืงื™ื“ื” (ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื ื•ืกื— ืžื”ืžื“ืจืฉ ื‘ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช) ื›ืชื•ื‘: "ื ื˜ืœื• [ื”ืื™ืœ] ื•ื”ืกืคื™ื’ื•, ืืžืจ ื›ืš ืชื”ื ืจื•ืื” ื›ืืœื• ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžืกืชืคื’ ืœืคื ื™ืš", ื•ืžืกืชืคื’ ื‘ื™ืื•ืจื•ย  'ืกื•ืคื’ื• ื‘ืžืœื—'ื›ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฉื ื” ื–ื‘ื—ื™ื ืค"ื• ืž"ื”.
[75]ืžืฉืš ื—ื›ืžื”, ื•ื™ืงืจื, ื“"ื” ืžืœื— ื‘ืจื™ืช.
[76]ื”ื’ืื•ืŸ ืจ'ืžืฉื” ืจื•ื˜ื ื‘ืจื’, ืจ"ื™ ื—ื›ืžื™ ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืŸ โ€“ ื“ื™ื˜ืจื•ื™ื˜, ื‘ื›ื•ืจื™ ืื‘ื™ื‘, ืกื˜. ืœื•ืื™ืก ืชืฉ"ื‘, ืกื™'ื” ืก"ืง ื›ื—.
[77]ืฉืคืชื™ ืฆื“ื™ืง, ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื™ืจื, ืขืž'ืกื.
[78]ืื•ืจ ืฆื‘ื™, ืกื•"ืค ื•ื™ืจื, ื•ืจืื” ืื•ืจ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืชืฉืจื™ ืชืฉืข"ื, ืขืž'ืฉื˜ื–!!ืจื‘ื™ ืžื ืฉื” ืื™ื™ื›ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ืžื–ื™ื“ื™ื˜ืฉื•ื‘-ื•ื•ื™ืจืขืฆืงื™ ืขืจืš ืžืืžืจ ื—ืจื™ืฃ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ืืจ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”'ืื•ืจ ืฆื‘ื™', ืฉื‘ื˜ ืžื ืฉื” ืกื™'ื”, ื ืกืคื— ืœืกืคืจื• ืชื•ืจืช ื”ืืฉื, ืคื“ื’ื•ืจื–ื ืชืจืก"ื”.
[79]ื•ืคืœืื™ ืขื“ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ื•ื•ื™ื˜ืืœ ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื•, ืฉืคืจื—ื” ื ืฉืžืชื•, ื•ื›ืฉื—ื–ืจ ืœืชื—ื™ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืจืš ื‘ืจื›ืช ืžื—ื™ื” ื”ืžืชื™ื, ืฉืขืจ ื”ื’ืœื’ื•ืœื™ื, ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืงื“ืžื” ืœื—.
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